War: What is it good for? (71 page)

Lord of the Flies:
Golding 1954. Golding and the Pacific: Carey 2010, p. 110.

Coming of Age in Samoa:
Mead 1928.

Levitating the Pentagon: Norman Mailer's fictionalized
Armies of the Night
(1968) is an extraordinary read.

Yanomami: Chagnon 1997. Since 1970, Chagnon and Timothy Asch have also released twenty-two superb films about the Yanomami:
www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/axfight/updates/yanomamofilmography.html
. Homicide and reproduction: Chagnon 1988. Among the Waorani people of Ecuador, where rates of violence are even higher than among the Yanomami, murderous men also outbreed the peaceful: Beckerman et al. 2009.

Criticisms of Chagnon: Tierney 2000, 2001. Accusations about massacres:
www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-19413107
;
www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-19460663
. Borofsky 2005 tries to be evenhanded, while Dreger 2011 forcefully refutes Tierney's accusations. José Padilha's 2010 film
Secrets of the Tribe
even alleges that some of Chagnon's critics had illegal sexual relations with Yanomami children. Chagnon 2013 is a very readable account of what he calls “two dangerous tribes—the Yanomamö and the anthropologists.”

Criticisms of Margaret Mead: Freeman 1983, 1989, 1999. There are many defenses too (for example, Shankman 2009).

Anthropological fieldwork as artistic performance: Faubion et al. 2009, with references to other examples.

Twentieth-century death rates: See sources listed for the introduction to this book.

Violence in Stone Age societies: Keeley 1996, LeBlanc and Register 2003, and Gat 2006 are excellent overviews. Several papers in Fry 2013 (especially B. Ferguson 2013) insist that Keeley, LeBlanc and Register, and Gat got it wrong, but I am unconvinced. Nivette 2011 usefully lists the main anthropological studies, emphasizing variations as well as the generally high level of violence. Several separate cross-cultural surveys of war in small-scale societies (Otterbein 1989; Ross 1983, 1985) found that 85–90 percent of these societies went to war in most years. Arkush and Allen 2006 is a good review of archaeological finds.

New Guinean driver: Diamond 2008. Lawsuit: Baltar 2009;
www.stinkyjournalism.org/latest-journalism-news-updates-149.php#
. Case dismissed: Jared Diamond's personal communication, February 3, 2012.

The Hidden Life of Dogs:
E. M. Thomas 1993.
The Harmless People:
E. M. Thomas 1959. Death rates: Knauft 1985, p. 379, table E, suggests that 1.3 percent of the San and 1.3 percent in Detroit died violently (San figures for 1920–55; American for 1980). McCall and Shields 2008 discuss the San case.
The Gods Must Be Crazy:
In Afrikaans, Ster Kinekor, 1980; general release in English, 20th Century Fox, 1984.

Violence in small-scale societies caused by contact with the West: B. Ferguson 1992, 1995, and 2013, with references to earlier papers.

Samoan hillforts: Best 1993 (a few radiocarbon dates are much earlier, including one of 1500 ± 80 BP from Luatuanu'u; but, as Best points out, p. 433, the early dates lack
clear associations with the forts). Legends of Samoan-Tongan wars: Ella 1899. Samoan and Tongan archaeology: Kirch 1984. Clubs and war canoes: Krämer 1995, p. 391.

Former military men in archaeology: Wheeler 1958 is a classic. Koukounaries: Schilardi 1984.

Ice Man: On the original discovery, Spindler 1993; the arrowhead, Pertner et al. 2007; the fatal blow, Nerlich et al. 2009, Gostner et al. 2011; red blood cells, Janko et al. 2012; ritual burial theory, Vanzetti et al. 2010.

Crow Creek: Zimmerman and Bradley 1993; Willey 1990; Willey et al. 1993. Sacred Ridge: Potter and Chuipka 2010;
www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/64465/title/Massacre_at_Sacred_Ridge
.

The Origins of Political Order:
Fukuyama 2011.

2.
CAGING THE BEAST

Battle of Plataea: Lazenby 1993 gives a good account. Briant 2002, pp. 535–42, discusses the Persian perspective.

Western way of war: V. D. Hanson 1989, 2001; Keegan 1993.

Scarre and Fagan 2007 give a concise overview of early civilizations.

New World states: Smith and Schreiber 2005, 2006, with references. Human sacrifice and militarism at Teotihuacán: Sugiyama 2005. Roman gladiators: Futrell 2006. Roman gladiator skeletons: Kanz and Grossschmidt 2006. Wari burial:
news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/06/130627-peru-archaeology-wari-south-america-human-sacrifice-royal-ancient-world
. In the best treatment of Mesoamerican warfare, Ross Hassig (1992, p. 60) asks, “Was there a Pax Teotihuacana?” and answers, “Probably not.”

Parthia: Curtis and Stewart 2007.

Han China generally: Lewis 2007. Han warfare: Lewis 1990. Unification of China: Hsu 1965; Lewis 1999. Yin Shang: Loewe 2006, pp. 166–67. Comparison of Roman and Han law: Turner 2009. Peacefulness of Han China: Loewe 1974; Loewe and Wilson 2005; Lewis 2000, 2007.

Discovery of the
Arthashastra:
Shamasastry 1967, p. vi. Murder,
Arthashastra
4.7; rules for investigating assault, 3.19; doctors, 2.36.10; cruelty to animals, 3.10.30–34; types of violence, 4.10–11; spitting and vomiting, 3.19.2–4 (= Rangarajan 1992, pp. 427–30, 435, 329, 292, 438–39, 437). Problems of interpretation: Thapar 1973, pp. 218–25; Mukherjee 2000, pp. 159–64.

Greek sources on India: the surviving fragments are translated at
www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/Megasthene-Indika.pdf
.

Law-abiding Indians: Megasthenes frag. 27 (reported in Strabo 15.1.53–56); no devastation or massacres, frag. 1 and 33 (Diodorus of Sicily 2.36; Strabo 15.1.40); feet back to front, frag. 29 (Strabo 15.1.57); dogs, frag. 12 (Strabo 15.1.37).

Ashoka's urban officers: Major Rock Edict V. Rural officers: Pillar Edict IV. Tours of inspection: Major Rock Edict VIII. Ashoka's reign: Thapar 1973. Ashoka and Buddhism: Seneviratna 1994.

Nature of the Mauryan Empire: Compare Mookerjee 1966, Mukherjee 2000, and Thapar 2002, pp. 174–208. On the archaeology, Allchin 1995, pp. 187–273; Chakrabarti 1999, pp. 262–318.

Han standards of living: Hsu 1980; Wang 1982.

Sanyangzhuang: Kidder et al. 2012. Roman silk dresses: Pliny,
Natural History
6.20.

Mauryan economic growth: Megasthenes frag. 1 (Diodorus of Sicily 2.36); Thapar 2002, pp. 188–89; Allchin 1995, pp. 200–221, 231–37; J. Marshall 1951, pp. 26, 87–110.

Mauryan economy: Saletore 1973. Standards of living: Allchin 1995. Bhita: J. Marshall 1911–12. Taxila: J. Marshall 1951. The Mauryan phase at Taxila is stratum II.

Marvels of India: Megasthenes frags. 1, 16, and 59 (quoted in Diodorus of Sicily 2.36; Pliny,
Natural History
8.14.1; Aelian,
History of Animals
16.2). Roman trade with India: Tomber 2008; Pliny,
Natural History
6.26, 12.41. Muziris papyrus: Rathbone 2001. GDP of Roman Empire: Scheidel and Friesen 2009 estimate 20 billion sesterces. Cost of Roman army: Duncan-Jones 1994. Excavations at Muziris: Cherian et al. 2007;
www.hindu.com/2011/06/12/stories/2011061254420500.htm
.

Origins of agriculture: Diamond 1997 is the clearest account and G. Barker 2006 the fullest. ≠Gau's band: R. Lee 1979, pp. 390–91. Aedui and Helvetii: Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 184–204, has a good account.

Circumscription: Carneiro 1970. Caging: M. Mann 1986, pp. 46–49. Keith Otterbein 2004 argues the opposite view—that violence declines with the shift from hunting to farming—but the evidence seems to point the other way.

Roman crucifixion: Appian,
Civil Wars
1.120 (published ca.
A.D.
150), on the mass crucifixion of Spartacus's followers in 71
B.C.
Maslen and Mitchell 2006 explain the grisly mechanics. Zias and Sekeles 1985 describe an actual first-century-
A.D.
crucifixion victim, found with an iron nail still lodged in one foot.

Casualties in 1991 Gulf War: Keaney and Cohen 1998. Revolution in military affairs since the 1970s: Martinage and Vickers 2004. Krepinevich 1994, Knox and Murray 2001, and Boot 2006 all put this in the context of the last seven centuries.

Stone Age battles: Q. Wright 1942, pp. 62–88, and Turney-High 1949 are the classic statements of the ritualized war theory. As so often, Keeley 1996, LeBlanc and Register 2003, and Gat 2006 put things straight. Raiding in the American Southwest: LeBlanc 1999.

Red Queen Effect: Van Valen 1973; Ridley 1993.

Early fortifications: Jericho: Bar-Yosef 1986; McClellan 2006. Mersin: Garstang 1956. Uruk: Liverani 2006.

Relations between Uruk, Tell Brak, and Habuba Kabira: Rothman 2001. Tell Brak fighting:
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/09/070907-syria-graves.html
. Early Egypt: Wengrow 2006.

Thrilla in Manila:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=D_y7FiCryb8
. War and society in Sumer: Kuhrt 1995, pp. 29–44. Sargon of Akkad: Liverani 2003.

Indus civilization and collapse: Rita Wright 2009.

Domestication of horses and invention of chariots: Anthony 2009; Outram et al. 2009. Chariot warfare: Chakravarti 1941, pp. 22–32; Drews 1988, 1992; Shaughnessy 1988. The
Nova
documentary “Building Pharaoh's Chariot” (
http://video.pbs.org/video/2331305481/
), first shown in 2013, is excellent. Weight: Piggott 1983, p. 89.

Earliest bows and arrows: Brown et al. 2012; Lombard 2011.

Solomon's chariots: 1 Kings 10:29. Slave price: Exodus 21:32. Hittite text:
Instructions of Kikkuli
(Nyland 2009). Numbers of chariots: Drews 1992, pp. 106n6 and 133–34.

Scale of Fertile Crescent wars and state power after 1600
B.C.
: Hamblin 2006; Spaliger 2005; van de Mieroop 2007, pp. 119–78, 2011; pp. 151–239.

Peace and prosperity in the chariot age: See, for example, Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, pp. 327–59; Kemp 2012; Cline 2010; von Falkenhausen 2006.

Sword types: D. H. Gordon 1953. Second-millennium-
B.C.
European warfare: Harding 2000, pp. 275–85; Kristiansen 2002; Kristiansen and Larsson 2005, pp. 212–47. There is some debate over where the new sword styles came into use; I follow Drews 1992, pp. 192–208, and Harding 2000.

Collapse of Bronze Age societies: Drews 1992; Cline 2013. Decline in trade: S. Murray
2013. I try to quantify the decline in population and living standards after 1200
B.C.
in Greece (admittedly an extreme case) in I. Morris 2007.

Adoption of iron: Snodgrass 2006, pp. 126–43.

Revival of states in Assyria and Israel: Kuhrt 1995, pp. 385–546; van de Mieroop 2007, pp. 195–231.

Origins of cavalry: Anthony 2009; Anthony and Brown 2011.

Amazons: Herodotus 4.110–17; Mayor, forthcoming. Scythian warrior women: Guliaev 2003.

Tiglath-Pileser III: Tadmor and Yamada 2011 collect the main evidence. Empires of western Eurasia: Morris and Scheidel 2009; Cline and Graham 2011.

Despite the prominence of war in ancient texts, there is a surprising amount of controversy over how armies actually fought. On Assyria, see Archer 2010; G. Fagan 2010; Nadali 2010; Scurlock 1997. On Persia, see Briant 1999; Tuplin 2010. On Greece, see V. D. Hanson 1989; van Wees 2004; Kagan and Viggiano 2013. On Macedon, see Hamilton 1999; A. Lloyd 1996. On republican Rome, see Keppie 1984; Goldsworthy 2003.

Punic Wars: Goldsworthy 2000; Miles 2011.

Size of states: There are many ways to count, so for the sake of consistency I have used a single set of figures, based on Taagepera 1978, 1979.

Ancient Chinese war: Lewis 1990, 1999; di Cosmo 2011; Sawyer 2011. Battle of Changping: Sima Qian,
Shiji
73, pp. 2333–35, trans. in B. Watson 1993, pp. 122–24. First Emperor: Portal 2007. Qin and Han law: Hulsewé 1955, 1985.

Ancient Indian war: Chakravarti 1941; Dikshitar 1987; Thapliyal 2010. Mailed infantry:
Arthashastra
9.2.29, trans. in Rangarajan 1992, p. 644. Elephants: Kistler 2007.

Rise of Ganges states: Allchin 1995, pp. 99–151; Chakrabarti 1999; Eltsov 2008; Erdosy 1988; Raychaudhuri 1996, pp. 85–158; Thapar 1984.

Social development index: I. Morris 2010, 2013.

3.
THE BARBARIANS STRIKE BACK

Vindolanda letters: Bowman and Thomas 1994 and
http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/
. Weather, nos. 234, 343; beer, no. 190; socks, no. 346; food, nos. 301, 302. Bowman 1994 discusses the letters. Afghanistan e-mails and blogs: Burden 2006; Tupper 2010.

Domitian's jealousy: Tacitus,
Agricola
39–40. Rome's strategic situation: Luttwak 1976, pp. 51–126.

Roman defeat of
A.D.
9: Wells 2003, with nice illustrations in the 2009 special edition of the magazine
Ancient Warfare
. Kalkriese park:
www.kalkriese-varusschlacht.de/
.

Clausewitz: Howard 2002 is an excellent introduction.

Distance costs in the Roman Empire:
http://orbis.stanford.edu/
.

Chinese frontiers: C. Chang 2007; Hsieh 2011. Xuanquan:
www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/research-resources/conferences/changsha-bamboo-documents.html
. Very few of the texts have yet been translated; I draw on Hsieh 2011, pp. 221–38.

Steppe nomads: Beckwith 2009 and Golden 2011 give good short reviews of the history, and J. D. Rogers 2012 discusses the forms of nomadic states. Dani and Masson 1992 (vols. 2–4), Harmatta 1994, Litvinsky 1996, and Sinor 1990 go into more detail. Di Cosmo 2002b and Hildinger 2001 focus on the military aspects, and E. Murphy 2003 and Jordana et al. 2009 present skeletal evidence for high levels of violence.

Assyrian cavalry: Dalley 1985. Fall of Assyria: Liverani 2001; Melville 2011. Murder of Scythian leaders in 590s
B.C.
: Herodotus 1.106.

Contemporary asymmetric wars: I have found Burke 2011, Coll 2004, Clarke 2007, and Joint Chiefs of Staff 2012 helpful. Neutralizing bin Laden: Coll 2004, pp. 369–584; L. Wright 2006, pp. 297–330.

Darius's lack of cavalry in 513
B.C.
: Herodotus 4.136.