The Psychology Book (12 page)

back as the beginnings of life at

pupils such as Edward Titchener

and recording internal events such

large. The question of the origin

and James Cattell.

as thoughts and feelings. It is

of mental development thus

crucial in research because it

resolves itself into the question

Observing behavior

provides information about how

of the origin of life.” Wundt went on

Wundt believed that “the exact

the mind is working. Wundt was

to say that even simple organisms

description of consciousness

interested in the relationship

such as protozoa have some form of

is the sole aim of experimental

between the inner and outer

mind. This last claim is surprising

psychology.” Although he

worlds, which he did not

today, when few people would

understood consciousness as an

see as mutually exclusive, but

expect a single-celled animal to

“inner experience,” he was only

as interactive, describing it as ❯❯

demonstrate even simple mental

interested in the “immediately

abilities, but it was even more

real” or apparent form of this

surprising when first stated more

experience. This ultimately led

than 100 years ago.

him to the study of behavior, which

Wundt was keen to test out his

could be studied and quantified by

theories, and he is often called “the

“direct observation.”

father of experimental psychology”

Wundt said that there are two

because he set up the world’s first

types of observation: external and

formal laboratory of experimental

internal. External observation

psychology in Leipzig University,

is used to record events that are

Germany, in 1879. He wanted

visible in the external world, and

to carry out systematic research on

is useful in assessing relationships

the mind and behavior of humans,

such as cause and effect on

initially through subjecting the

basic sensory processes to close

Wundt’s laboratory
set the style

examination. His laboratory

for psychology departments around

inspired other universities in

the world. His experiments moved

the US and Europe to set up

psychology out of the domain of

psychology departments, many

philosophy and into science.

36 WILHELM WUNDT

“physical and psychical.” He began

to concentrate on the study of

human sensations, such as the

visual sensation of light, because

these are the agencies that link

the external physical world and

the internal mental world.

In one experiment, Wundt

asked individuals to report on their

sensations when shown a light

signal—which was standardized

Our sensations provide details
of

to a specific color and a certain level

shape, size, color, smell, and texture,

of brightness, and shone for a fixed

but when these are internalized, Wundt

length of time. This ensured that

says, they are compounded into complex

each participant experienced

representations, such as a face.

exactly the same stimulus, enabling

responses of different participants

to be compared and the experiment

and he used various instruments

of actions—representation, willing,

to be repeated at a later date, if

to measure this response exactly.

and feeling—which together form

required. In insisting upon this

He was also just as interested to

an impression of a unitary flow of

possibility for replication, Wundt

hear what his participants reported

events. Representations are either

set the standard for all future

in common as he was in apparent

“perceptions,” if they represent an

psychological experiments.

individual differences.

image in the mind of an object

In his sensory experiments,

Pure sensations, Wundt

perceived in the external world

Wundt set out to explore human

suggested, have three components:

(such as a tree within eyesight),

consciousness in a measurable

quality, intensity, and “feeling-tone.”

or “intuitions” if they represent a

way. He refused to see it as an

For example, a certain perfume may

subjective activity (such as

unknowable, subjective experience

have a sweet odor (quality) that is

remembering a tree, or imagining

that is unique to each individual.

distinct but faint (intensity) and is

a unicorn). He named the process

In the light-response experiments,

pleasant to smell (feeling-tone),

through which a perception or

he was particularly interested in the

while a dead rat might give off a

intuition becomes clear in

amount of time between a person

nauseating (quality), strong

consciousness “apperception.”

receiving some form of stimulus and

(intensity) stench (feeling-tone). All

So, for example, you may perceive

making a voluntary reaction to it

consciousness originates in

a sudden loud noise and then

(rather than an involuntary one),

sensations, he said, but these are

apperceive that it is a warning sign,

not internalized as “pure” sensory

meaning that you are about to be

data; they are perceived as already

hit by a car if you don’t get out of

collected or compounded into

the way quickly enough.

representations, such as a dead rat.

The willing category of

Wundt called these “images of an

consciousness is characterized

object or of a process in the external

by the way it intervenes in the

The exact description

world.” So, for example, if we see a

external world; it expresses our

of consciousness is the

face with certain features—mouth

volition, or “will,” from raising

sole aim of experimental

shape, eye color, nose size, and so

an arm to choosing to wear red.

psychology.

on—we may recognize the face as

This form of consciousness is

Wilhelm Wundt

a person we know.

beyond experimental control or

measurement. However, Wundt

Categories of consciousness

found that the third category of

Based on his sensory experiments,

consciousness, feeling, could be

Wundt claimed that consciousness

measured through subjective

consists of three major categories

reports from experimental

PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS 37

participants, or through measuring

considered by many psychologists

levels of behavior such as tension

to be a key difference between

and relaxation or excitement.

human beings and the rest of the

animal kingdom. There may be

Cultural psychology

a few exceptions, including

For Wundt, the psychological

In the course of normal

nonhuman primates such as

development of a person is

speaking… the will is

chimpanzees, but language is

determined not only by sensations

continuously directed to

generally considered to be a

but also by complex social and

bringing the course of ideas

human ability that is very

cultural influences, which cannot

and the articulatory

important in consciousness.

be replicated or controlled in an

movements into harmony

experimental situation. He included

with each other.

Consciousness and species

religion, language, myths, history,

The definition of consciousness

Wilhelm Wundt

art, laws, and customs among

continues to be debated, but it has

these influences, discussing them

not fundamentally changed since

in a ten-volume work,
Cultural

Wundt. The level of consciousness

Psychology
, which he wrote during

within animals has not yet been

the last 20 years of his life.

established, and this has led to the

Wundt saw language as an

formation of special Codes of Ethics

especially important part of culture’s

understand the meaning that the

for animal experiments, intensive

contribution to consciousness. Any

speaker is trying to convey, but

farming, and blood sports such as

verbal communication begins with

the actual words may not be as

fox hunting and bull fighting. Of

a “general impression,” or unified

important as the general impression,

particular concern is whether

idea of something we wish to say.

especially if strong emotions are

animals experience discomfort,

Having “apperceived” this general

involved. As evidence of the fact that

fear, and pain in ways that

starting point, we then choose

we use this process, Wundt points

resemble the form in which we feel

words and sentences to express it.

out that we often remember the

them ourselves. The fundamental

While speaking, we monitor the

general meaning of what a person

question of which animals have

accuracy of the intended meaning.

has said long after we’ve forgotten

self-awareness or consciousness

We might say, “No, that’s not right, I

the specific words that were used.

remains unanswered, although few

mean…,” and then choose a different

The ability to use true language,

psychologists today would assume,

word or phrase to express ourselves

as opposed to just exchanging

as Wundt did, that it applies even

better. Whoever is listening has to

limited signs and signals, is today

to the microscopic protozoa. ■

Wilhelm Wundt

Born in Baden (now Mannheim)

for his work on visual perception.

Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was

While at Heidelberg, Wundt

the fourth child in a family with

started teaching the world’s first

a long history of intellectual

course in experimental

achievement. His father was a

psychology, and in 1879 opened

Lutheran minister. The young

the first psychology laboratory.

Wundt was allowed little time for

Wundt wrote over 490 works

play, as he was pushed through

and was probably the world’s

a rigorous educational regime,

most prolific scientific writer.

attending a strict Catholic school

from the age of 13. He went on to

Key works

study at the universities of Berlin,

Tübingen, and Heidelberg,

1863
Lectures on the Mind

graduating in medicine in 1856.

of Humans and Animals

Two years later, Wundt became

1896
Outline of Psychology

assistant to the physician Hermann

1873
Principles of Physiological

von Helmholtz, who was famous

Psychology