The Psychology Book (4 page)

oriented psychologists was limited

The behaviorists’ studies

interpretations by the various

by the introspective nature of their

concentrated almost exclusively

schools of thought, while others

methods: pioneers such as Hermann

on how behavior is shaped by

have fallen in and out of favor,

Ebbinghaus became the subject of

interaction with the environment;

but each time they have exerted

their own investigations, effectively

this “stimulus–response” theory

a significant influence on

restricting the range of topics to

became well known through the

subsequent thinking, and have

those that could be observed in

work of John Watson. New learning

occasionally spawned completely

themselves. Although they used

theories began to spring up in

new fields for exploration.

scientific methods and their

Europe and the US, and attracted

The simplest way to approach

theories laid the foundations for

the interest of the general public.

the vast subject of psychology for

the new science, many in the next

However, at much the same time

the first time is to take a look at

generation of psychologists found

as behaviorism began to emerge in

some of its main movements, as

their processes too subjective, and

the US, a young neurologist

we do in this book. These occurred

began to look for a more objective

in Vienna started to develop a

in roughly chronological order, from

methodology.

theory of mind that was to overturn

its roots in philosophy, through

In the 1890s, the Russian

contemporary thinking and inspire

behaviorism, psychotherapy, and

physiologist Ivan Pavlov conducted

a very different approach. Based

the study of cognitive, social, and

experiments that were to prove

on observation of patients and case

developmental psychology, to the

critical to the development of

histories rather than laboratory

psychology of difference.

psychology in both Europe and

experiments, Sigmund Freud’s

the US. He proved that animals

psychoanalytic theory marked ❯❯

Two approaches

could be conditioned to produce

Even in its earliest days, psychology

a response, an idea that developed

meant different things to different

into a new movement known as

people. In the US, its roots lay in

behaviorism. The behaviorists felt

philosophy, so the approach taken

that it was impossible to study

was speculative and theoretical,

mental processes objectively, but

dealing with concepts such as

found it relatively easy to observe

The first fact for us then, as

consciousness and the self. In

and measure behavior: a

psychologists, is that thinking

Europe, the study was rooted in the

manifestation of those processes.

of some sort goes on.

sciences, so the emphasis was on

They began to design experiments

William James

examining mental processes such

that could be conducted under

as sensory perception and memory

controlled conditions, at first on

under controlled laboratory

animals, to gain an insight into

conditions. However, even the

human psychology, and later on

research of these more scientifically

humans.

12 INTRODUCTION

a return to the study of subjective

forgetting, language and language

conformity, and our reasons for

experience. He was interested in

acquisition, problem-solving and

aggression or altruism, all of which

memories, childhood development,

decision-making, and motivation.

were increasingly relevant in the

and interpersonal relationships,

Even psychotherapy, which

modern world of urban life and

and emphasized the importance

mushroomed in myriad forms

ever-improving communications.

of the unconscious in determining

from the original “talking cure,”

Freud’s continuing influence

behavior. Although his ideas were

was influenced by the cognitive

was felt mainly through the new

revolutionary at the time, they

approach. Cognitive therapy and

field of developmental psychology.

were quickly and widely adopted,

cognitive-behavioral therapy

Initially concerned only with

and the notion of a “talking cure”

emerged as alternatives to

childhood development, study in

continues within the various forms

psychoanalysis, leading to

this area expanded to include

of psychotherapy today.

movements such as humanist

change throughout life, from

psychology, which focused on the

infancy to old age. Researchers

New fields of study

qualities unique to human life.

charted methods of social, cultural,

In the mid-20th century, both

These therapists turned their

and moral learning, and the ways in

behaviorism and psychoanalysis

attention from healing the sick to

which we form attachments. The

fell out of favor, with a return to the

guiding healthy people toward

contribution of developmental

scientific study of mental

living more meaningful lives.

psychology to education and

processes. This marked the

While psychology in its early

training has been significant but,

beginning of cognitive psychology,

stages had concentrated largely

less obviously, it has influenced

a movement with its roots in the

on the mind and behavior of

holistic approach of the Gestalt

individuals, there was now an

psychologists, who were interested

increasing interest in the way we

in studying perception. Their work

interact with our environment and

began to emerge in the US in the

other people; this became the field

years following World War II; by the

of social psychology. Like cognitive

late 1950s, cognitive psychology

psychology, it owed much to the

If the 19th century was

had become the predominant

Gestalt psychologists, especially

the age of the editorial chair,

approach. The rapidly growing

Kurt Lewin, who had fled from Nazi

ours is the century of the

fields of communications and

Germany to the US in the 1930s.

psychiatrist’s couch.

computer science provided

Social psychology gathered pace

Marshall McLuhan

psychologists with a useful

during the latter half of the 20th

analogy; they used the model of

century, when research revealed

information processing to develop

intriguing new facts about our

theories to explain our methods of

attitudes and prejudices, our

attention, perception, memory and

tendencies toward obedience and

INTRODUCTION 13

thinking about the relationship

such as neuroscience and genetics.

societies are or might be structured

between childhood development

In particular, the nature versus

as it does to diagnosing and

and attitudes to race and gender.

nurture argument that dates back

treating mental disorders.

Almost every psychological

to Francis Galton’s ideas of the

The ideas and theories of

school has touched upon the subject

1920s continues to this day;

psychologists have become part of

of human uniqueness, but in the

recently, evolutionary psychology

our everyday culture, to the extent

late 20th century this area was

has contributed to the debate by

that many of their findings about

recognized as a field in its own

exploring psychological traits as

behavior and mental processes are

right in the psychology of difference.

innate and biological phenomena,

now viewed simply as “common

As well as attempting to identify

which are subject to the laws of

sense.” However, while some of the

and measure personality traits and

genetics and natural selection.

ideas explored in psychology

the various factors that make up

Psychology is a huge subject,

confirm our instinctive feelings,

intelligence, psychologists in this

and its findings concern every one

just as many make us think again;

growing field examine definitions

of us. In one form or another it

psychologists have often shocked

and measures of normality and

informs many decisions made in

and outraged the public when their

abnormality, and look at how much

government, business and industry,

findings have shaken conventional,

our individual differences are a

advertising, and the mass media.

long-standing beliefs.

product of our environment or the

It affects us as groups and as

In its short history, psychology

result of genetic inheritance.

individuals, contributing as much

has given us many ideas that have

to public debate about the ways our

changed our ways of thinking,

An influential science

and that have also helped us to

The many branches of psychology

understand ourselves, other people,

that exist today cover the whole

and the world we live in. It has

spectrum of mental life and human

questioned deeply held beliefs,

and animal behavior. The overall

unearthed unsettling truths, and

scope has extended to overlap with

provided startling insights and

many other disciplines, including

The purpose of psychology

solutions to complex questions.

medicine, physiology, neuroscience,

is to give us a completely

Its increasing popularity as a

computer science, education,

different idea of the

university course is a sign not

sociology, anthropology, and even

things we know best.

only of psychology’s relevance in

politics, economics, and the law.

Paul Valéry

the modern world, but also of the

Psychology has become perhaps

enjoyment and stimulation that can

the most diverse of sciences.

be had from exploring the richness

Psychology continues to

and diversity of a subject that

influence and be influenced by the

continues to examine the mysterious

other sciences, especially in areas

world of the human mind.