The Pleasure Instinct: Why We Crave Adventure, Chocolate, Pheromones, and Music (30 page)

6
Until recently, scientists have
For an excellent review, see chapters in Ekman, P, Davidson, RJ (1997)
The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions
. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

6
Academics have typically shied
But see Johnston,VS (1999)
Why We Feel:The Science of Human Emotions
. Perseus Publishing, New York, NY.

7
Sociobiology and its heir apparent
Excellent introductions to evolutionary psychology include Konner, MJ (2001)
The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit
. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY; Barkow, JH, Cosmides, L, Tooby, J (1997)
The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture
. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England; Buss, DM (1998)
Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of Mind
. Pearson Allyn and Bacon, New York, NY; Pinker, S (1999)
How the Mind Works
. W. W. Norton and Company, New York, NY.

7
Pleasure, as we shall see
Cabanac, M (1992) Pleasure: the common currency.
Journal of Theoretical Biology
155, no.2: 173-200.

7
Such biases persist
A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that serves to increase the likelihood of the behavior that produces it.

 

12
In his book
The Language Instinct Pinker, S (1994)
The Language Instinct
. Perennial, New York, NY.

14
Such increasingly complicated
Humphrey, N (1992)
A History of the Mind
. Simon and Schuster, New York, NY; Mithen, S (1996)
The Prehistory of the Mind:The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science
. Thames and Hudson, England; Klein, RG (2002)
The Dawn of Human Culture
. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

16
Many scholars agree
Diamond, JM (1992)
The Third Chimpanzee:The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal
. Harper Collins, New York, NY; Deacon, T (1997)
The Symbolic Species
. W. W. Norton, New York, NY.

17
In cognitive science circles
For a recent review of the representation problem, see Pylyshyn, ZW (2002) Mental imagery: in search of a theory.
Behavioral Brain Sciences
25, no.2: 157-182.

17
But this is premature
Example used by Hauser, MD (2000)
Wild Minds:What Animals Really Think
. Henry Holt and Company, New York.

18
How did proto-emotions
See Dunbar, R (1998)
Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language
. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; Deacon, T (1997)
The Symbolic Species
. W. W. Norton, New York, NY; Pinker,
The Language Instinct
.

18
We will employ a more modern
See Striedter, GF (1998) Progress in the study of brain evolution: from speculative theories to testable hypotheses.
The Anatomical Record (New Anatomy),
253: 105-112; and relevant chapters in Gould, SJ (2002)
The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

18
“The human race began to talk
Cited in Locke,
The Child’s Path to Spoken Language
.

20
In humans this exchange
For a review, see ibid.; Owens, RE (2000)
Language Development: An Introduction
. Pearson Allyn and Bacon, New York, NY.

20
Detailed experiments following
Stern, DN, Spieker, S, Barnett, RK, MacKain, K (1983) The prosody of maternal speech: infant age and context related changes.
Journal of Child and Language,
10(1): 1-15; Halle, PA, de Boysson-Bardies, B, Vihman, MM (1991) Beginnings of prosodic organization: intonation and duration patterns of disyllables produced by Japanese and French infants.
Language and Speech,
34, 299-318.

20
“Communication is successful”
See Locke,
The Child’s Path to Spoken Language
.

22
For instance, synthesized sounds
Murray, IR,Arnott, JL (1993) Toward the simulation of emotion in synthetic speech: a review of the literature on human vocal emotion.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
93(2): 1097-108; Collier,WG, Hubbard,TL (2001) Musical scales and evaluations of happiness and awkwardness: effects of pitch, direction, and scale mode.
American Journal of Psychology,
114(3): 355-375.

22
Developmental psychologist Andrew Meltzoff
For an overview of these experiments see Gopnick,A, Meltzoff,AN, Kuhl, PK (1999)
The Scientist in the Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Children Learn
. William Morrow, New York.

23
Studies have also shown that infants
For a recent review of this literature see Turati, C, Simion, F, Milani, I, Umilta, C (2002) Newborns’ preference for faces: what is crucial?
Developmental Psychology,
38(6): 875-882.

 

26
By the time he was twenty-four years old
Published reports of case studies typically use a patient’s initials or some other descriptor in an effort to maintain their anonymity. Heath, RG (1972) Pleasure and brain activity in man. Deep and surface electroencephalograms during orgasm.
Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders,
154(1): 3-18.

26
Impressed by the work of Olds
Olds, J, Milner, P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain.
Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology,
47(6): 419-427.

26
“They function in an almost continuous
Quoted in Hooper, J,Teresi, D (1986)
The Three-Pound Universe
. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

26
Electrodes and cannulas
Olds, J, Milner, P (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain.
Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology,
47(6): 419-427.

29
In the fifty years since
For recent reviews see Berridge, KC (2002) Pleasure of the brain.
Brain and Cognition,
52(1): 106-128; Wise, RA (2002) Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives.
Neuron,
36(2): 229-240; Kelley, AE, Berridge, KC (2002) The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs.
Journal of Neuroscience,
22(9): 3312-3320.

29
As the circuit continued
Olds, J (1976) Brain stimulation and the motivation of behavior.
Progress in Brain Research,
45: 401-426; Berridge, KC (2002) Pleasure of the brain.
Brain and Cognition,
52(1), 106-128; Wise, RA (2002) Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives.
Neuron,
36(2): 229-240; Kelley, AE, Berridge, KC (2002) The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs.
Journal of Neuroscience,
22(9): 3312-3320.

30
Behavioral scientists have used
Woodward, DJ, Chang, JY, Janak, P, Azarov, A, Anstrom, K (2000) Activity patterns in mesolimbic regions in rats during operant tasks for reward.
Progress in Brain Research,
126: 303-322.

31
Understanding how associative learning
For examples see Eichenbaum, H (2001) The hippocampus and declarative memory: cognitive mechanisms and neural codes.
Behavioral Brain Research,
127(1-2): 199-207; Hasselmo, ME, McClelland, JL (1999) Neural models of memory.
Current Opinion in Neurobiology,
9(2): 184-188; Wallenstein, GV, Eichenbaum, H, Hasselmo, ME (1998) The hippocampus as an associator of discontiguous events.
Trends in Neuroscience,
21(8): 317-323; Kesner, RP, Gilbert, PE,Wallenstein, GV (2000) Testing neural network models of memory with behavioral experiments.
Current Opinion in Neurobiology,
10(2): 260-265.

31
Rats often learn to avoid
Parker, LA (2003) Taste avoidance and taste aversion: evidence for two different processes.
Learning and Behavior,
31(2): 165-172; Maren, S (2001) Neurobiology of Pavlovian fear conditioning.
Annual Review of Neuroscience,
24: 897-931.

32
“The dancing chicken is exhibiting”
Breland, K, Breland, M (1961) The misbehavior of organisms.
American Psychologist,
16: 681-684.

32
In fact, sugars rated
Sclafani, A, Fanizza, LJ, Azzara,AV (1999) Conditioned flavor avoidance, preference, and indifference produced by intragastric infusions of galactose, glucose, and fructose in rats.
Physiology and Behavior,
67(2): 227-234.

37
Others are activated by stress, learning
For a review see Wallenstein, GV (2003)
Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood
. Commonwealth Press, Boston.

43
At present, there are several controversial
Slezak, M, Pfrieger, FW (2003) New roles for astrocytes: regulation of CNS synaptogenesis.
Trends in Neuroscience,
26(10): 531-535;Adams, P, Cox, K (2002) A new interpretation of thalamocortical circuitry.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences,
357(1428): 1767-1779; Grossman,AW, Churchill, JD, Bates, KE, Kleim, JA, Greenough, WT (2002) A brain adaptation view of plasticity: is synaptic plasticity an overly limited concept?
Progress in Brain Research,
138: 91-108.

46
From culture to culture
Sugarman, L (2001)
Lifespan Development: Theories, Concepts and Interventions
. Psychology Press, New York.

 

49
By the time the world met him
Ruckel, I (2002)
Abandoned for Life: The Incredible Story of One Romanian Orphan
. JB Information Station Publishers, St. Louis.

50
As late as 1915
Chapin, HD (1915) A plea for accurate statistics in children’s institutions.
Transactions of the American Pediatric Society,
27: 180.

50
It is important to note
Holt, LE (1935)
The Care and Feeding of Children
(15th edition). Appleton-Century, New York.

51
The pediatric wards of the famed Bellevue
Brennemann, J (1932) The infant ward.
American Journal of Diseases of Children,
43: 577.

51
“If they continued hurting themselves
Ruckel, I (2002)
Abandoned for Life: The Incredible Story of One Romanian Orphan
. JB Information Station Publishers, St. Louis.

53
For touch to be perceived
Falk, D, Gibson, KR (2001)
Evolutionary Anatomy of the Primate Cerebral Cortex
. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

53
Each of these sensory modalities
For a general review of the touch system, see Rowe, MJ, Iwamura, Y (2000)
Somatosensory Processing: From Single Neuron to Brain Imaging
. Taylor & Francis, New York.

54
A very active area of research
Fox, K, Glazewski, S, Schulze, S (2000) Plasticity and stability of somatosensory maps in thalamus and cortex.
Current Opinion in Neurobiology,
10(4): 494-497; Jones, EG (2000) Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex.
Annual Review of Neuroscience,
23: 1-37; Rauschecker, JP (2002) Cortical map plasticity in animals and humans.
Progress in Brain Research,
138:73-88.

54
Psychologist William Greenough
Klintsova, AY, Greenough, WT (1999) Synaptic plasticity in cortical systems.
Current Opinion in Neurobiology,
9(2): 203-208; Greenough, WT (1987) Mechanisms of behaviorally-elicited and electrically-elicited long-term potentiation.
International Journal of Neurology,
21: 137-144.

54
Experience-expectant stimuli
In Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990)
Touch: The Foundation of Experience
. International University Press, Madison, CT.

55
Thus, whisker sensation
Kossut, M (1998) Experience-dependent changes in function and anatomy of adult barrel cortex.
Experimental Brain Research,
123 (1-2): 110-116; Glazewski, S (1998) Experience-dependent changes in vibrissae evoked responses in the rodent barrel cortex.
Acta Neurobiologica Exp (Wars),
58(4): 309-320; Fox, K (2002) Anatomical pathways and molecular mechanisms for plasticity in the barrel cortex.
Neuroscience,
111(4): 799-814.

55
For instance, when mice are placed
For a review of these studies see van Praag, H, Kempermann, G, Gage, FH (2000) Neural consequences of environmental enrichment.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience,
1(3): 191-198; Rosenzweig, MR, Bennett, EL (1996) Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior.
Behavioral Brain Research,
78(1): 57-65.

56
Rather, the preferences for certain
Victora, MD,Victora, CG, Barros, FC (1990) Cross-cultural differences in developmental rates: a comparison between British and Brazilian children.
Child Care Health and Development,
6(3): 151-164; Chen, ST (1989) Comparison between the development of Malaysian and Denver children.
Journal of the Singapore Pediatric Society,
31(3-4): 178-185; Lejarraga, H, Pascucci, MC, Krupitzky, S, Kelmansky, D, Bianco, A, Martinez, E,Tibaldi, F, Cameron, N, (2002) Psychomotor development in Argentinean children aged 0-5 years.
Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology,
16(1): 47-60.

57
Some recent studies have shown
Eriksson, PS (2003) Neurogenesis and its implications for regeneration in the adult brain.
Journal of Rehabilitative Medicine,
(41 Suppl): 17-19; Kozorovitskiy, Y, Gould, E (2003) Adult neurogenesis: a mechanism for brain repair?
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,
25(5): 721-732; Eisch,AJ (2002) Adult neurogenesis: implications for psychiatry.
Progress in Brain Research,
138: 315-342.