The History of White People (64 page)

38
Kenneth T. Jackson, “Race, Ethnicity, and Real Estate Appraisal: The Home Owners Loan Corporation and the Federal Housing Administration,”
Journal of Urban History
6 (1980): 433. On racial segregation in the mid-twentieth-century North, see Sugrue,
Sweet Land of Liberty
.

CHAPTER 27: BLACK NATIONALISM AND WHITE ETHNICS

1
Bruce Perry,
Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America
(Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill Press, 1991), 2–3, 113–17, 139–41, 161–62.

2
Autobiography of Malcolm X as Told to Alex Haley
(New York: Ballantine Books, 1965), 404. See also Thulani Davis and Howard Chapnick,
Malcolm X: The Great Photographs
(New York: Stewart Tabori and Chang, 1993).

3
Perry,
Malcolm
, 115–16; Nell Irvin Painter,
Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 254.

4
Perry,
Malcolm
: 181. See also Nell Irvin Painter, “Malcolm X across the Genres,”
American Historical Review
98, no. 2 (April 1993): 396–404.

5
Perry,
Malcolm
, 175–76.

6
Michael Novak,
The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics: Politics and Culture in the Seventies
(New York: Macmillan, 1972), 71–77.

7
James Baldwin,
The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonfiction, 1948–1985
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), xiv, xviv, xx, 431–32.

8
Margaret Mead and James Baldwin,
A Rap on Race
(Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1971), and Kai T. Erikson,
In Search of Common Ground: Conversations with Erik H. Erikson and Huey P. Newton
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1973).

9
Michael Omi and Howard Winant,
Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s
, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 99.

10
See Mary Waters,
Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 90–93, and Micaela de Leonardo, “Racial Fairy Tales,”
Nation
253, no. 20 (9 Dec. 1991): 752–54. Herbert Gans coined the phrase “symbolic ethnicity” in “Symbolic Ethnicity: The Future of Ethnic Groups and Cultures in America,”
Ethnic and Racial Studies
2 (Jan. 1979): 1–20.

11
Pierre L. van den Berghe,
Race and Ethnicity: Essays in Comparative Sociology
(New York: Basic Books, 1970), 10. Van den Berghe explains, “What makes a society multiracial is not the presence of physical differences between groups, but the attribution of social significance to such physical differences as may exist.”

12
See Richard Alba,
Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), and Waters,
Ethnic Options
.

13
Novak,
Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics
, 135, 166–67, 198.

14
Ibid., 67, 71, 77.

15
Dan T. Carter,
The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 137–38, 146–51.

16
Michael Novak, “Novak: The Rise of Unmeltable Ethnics, Part I,” 30 Aug. 2006, http://www.firstthings.com/onthesquare/?p=450.

17
James Traub, “Nathan Glazer Changes His Mind, Again,”
New York Times
, 28 June 1998.

18
Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan,
Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City
, 2nd ed. (New York: MIT Press, 1970), 16–17.

19
Alejandro Portes, “The Melting Pot That Did Happen,”
International Migration Review
34, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 243–44.

20
Glazer and Moynihan,
Beyond the Melting Pot
: lxii–lxvi, lxviii, lxxiv (quote on lxxxiii, emphasis added). Michael Novak quoted this insult in
Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics
, 93.

21
Glazer and Moynihan,
Beyond the Melting Pot
, xvi.

CHAPTER 28: THE FOURTH ENLARGEMENT OF AMERICAN WHITENESS

1
Victoria Hattam, “Ethnicity and the Boundaries of Race: Rereading Directive 15,”
Daedalus
134, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 61–62, 67.

2
Measuring America: The Decennial Census from 1790 to 2000
, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2002), 100, and Jennifer L. Hochschild, “Looking Ahead: Racial Trends in the United States,”
Daedalus
134, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 71.

3
Hochschild, “Looking Ahead,” 76.

4
Richard D. Alba,
Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 9–12.

5
Lillian Smith,
Killers of the Dream
, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), 36–37, 84, 90–94, 123–24, 163–65.

6
John Howard Griffin,
Black like Me
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961); Robert Bonazzi,
Man in the Mirror: John Howard Griffin and the Story of
Black like Me (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books: 1997), 54–92.

7
Grace Halsell,
Soul Sister: The Journal of a White Woman Who Turned Herself Black and Went to Live and Work in Harlem and Mississippi
(New York: World Publishing, 1969), and Grace Halsell,
In Their Shoes
(Forth Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1996), 123–68.

8
See Troy Duster, “The ‘Morphing’ Properties of Whiteness,” in
Making and Unmaking of Whiteness
, ed. Birgit Brander Rasmussen, Eric Klineberg, Irene J. Nexica, and Matt Wray (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 129.

9
David R. Roediger,
The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class
(London: Verso, 1991), and
How Race Survived U.S. History: From the American Revolution to the Present
(New York: Verso, 2008). See also Kimberlé Crenshaw et al., eds.,
Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement
(New York: New Press, 1995), Richard Delgado, ed.,
Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, eds.,
Critical White Studies: Looking behind the Mirror
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997), and Ian F. Haney Lopez,
White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race
(New York: New York University Press, 1996), provide useful introductions.

10
Rasmussen et al. eds.,
Making and Unmaking of Whiteness
, 7. To confuse matters further, sociologists have discovered that multiracial people change their identities according to context. Other people’s perceptions influence how their identity gets phrased.

11
See chapter 11. The quote comes from
The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson
, vol. 5,
English Traits
, ed. Philip Nicoloff (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 26.

12
See Annette Gordon-Reed,
The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family
(New York: W.W. Norton, 2008), 536–39.

13
Editorial,
Nature Genetics
24, no. 2 (Feb. 2000): no pagination.

14
Joseph L. Graves Jr.,
The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium
(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 155–56.

15
William S. Klug and Michael R. Cummings,
Concepts of Genetics
, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000), 5–7, 17–18, and Matt Ridley,
Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters
(New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 123–24.

16
The newspaper stories ran on 21 Feb. 1995. See Graves,
Emperor’s New Clothes
, 155–56.

17
Ridley,
Genome
, 247, and Arthur L. Caplan, “His Genes, Our Genome,”
New York Times
, 3 May 2002, p. A23.

18
Natalie Angier, “Skin Deep,”
New York Times
, 5 Feb. 2001, pp. 14–15.

19
This is the view of the journalist Jon Entine, a fellow (like Michael Novak) of the American Enterprise Institute and author of
Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We are Afraid to Talk about It
(2000) and
Abraham’s Children: Race, Identity, and the DNA of the Chosen People
(2007).

20
Hillel Halkin, “Jews and Their DNA,”
Commentar
y, Sept. 2008, pp. 37–43, and reader letters from
Commentary
, Dec. 2008, unpaginated. Halkin is a columnist for the
New York Sun
and frequent
Commentary
contributor.

21
Bryan Sykes,
Saxons, Vikings, and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland
(New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 279–87.

22
Nicholas Wade, “The Palette of Humankind,”
New York Times
, 24 Dec. 2002, p. F3. See also Anne Fausto-Sterling, “Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health Care,”
differences
15, no. 3 (2004): 10.

23
Michael Bamshad and Steve E. Olson, “Does Race Exist?”
Scientific American
, Dec. 2003, pp. 78–85.

24
Fausto-Sterling, “Refashioning Race,” 30. See also a report from the National Human Genome Center of the Howard University College of Medicine: Charmaine D. M. Royal and Georgia M. Dunston, “Changing the Paradigm from ‘Race’ to Human Genome Variation,”
Nature Genetics Online
, 26 Oct. 2004.

25
Lehrman, “Reality of Race,” 33. See Troy Duster,
Backdoor to Eugenics
(New York: Routledge, 1990).

26
See Sally Satel, “I Am a Racially Profiling Doctor,”
New York Times
, 5 May 2002, p. 56.