The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire (90 page)

  14   J. G. D. Clark,
Prehistoric Europe: The Economic Basis
(Stanford University Press, 1966); Paul G. Bahn,
Cave Art: A Guide to the Decorated Ice Age Caves of Europe
(Frances Lincoln, London, 2007).

  15   Raymond C. Kelly,
Warless Societies and the Origin of War
(University of Michigan Press, 2000).

  17   Leslie G. Freeman, “Caves and Art: Rites of Initiation and Transcendence,” in
Anthropology without Informants: Collected Works in Paleoanthropology
(University Press of Colorado, Boulder, 2009), 329–341.

CHAPTER 2: ROUSSEAU’S “STATE OF NATURE”

  20   Commonsense opinions concerning the usefulness of living hunter-gathers for understanding the past can be found in Ernest S. Burch Jr., “The Future of Hunter-Gatherer Research,” in Ernest S. Burch Jr. and Linda J. Ellanna, eds.,
Key Issues in Hunter-Gatherer Research
(Berg, Oxford, 1994), 441–455; Richard B. Lee, “Art, Science or Politics? The Crisis in Hunter-Gatherer Studies,”
American Anthropologist
94 (1992): 31–54; Susan Kent,
Cultural Diversity among Twentieth-Century Foragers: An African Perspective
(Cambridge University Press, 1996).

  21   Overviews of the peopling of the American Arctic can be found in Don E. Dumond,
The Eskimos and Aleuts: Revised Edition
(Thames and Hudson, 1987); David Damas, ed.,
Handbook of American Indians, vol. 5: Arctic
(Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1984).

  21   Overviews of Eskimo society can be found in Ernest S. Burch Jr.’s books,
The Eskimos
(Macdonald, London, 1988), and
Alliance and Conflict: The World System of the Iñupiaq Eskimos
(University of Nebraska Press, 2005). (The references in both books include the pioneering works of Knud Rasmussen.)

  23   Kaj Birket-Smith,
The Caribou Eskimos: Material and Social Life and Their Cultural Position
(Gyldendal, Copenhagen, 1929).

  24   Asen Balikci,
The Netsilik Eskimo
(The Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y., 1970). Netsilik seal-sharing was originally described by Frans Van de Velde in “Les Règles du Partage des Phoques pris par la Chasse aux Aglus,”
Anthropologica
3 (Wilfred Laurier University Press, Waterloo, Ontario, 1956), 5–14.

  27   Mark Stiger, “A Folsom Structure in the Colorado Mountains,”
American Antiquity
71 (2006): 321–351; Edwin N. Wilmsen,
Lindenmeier: A Pleistocene Hunting Society
(Harper & Row, New York, 1974); Edwin N. Wilmsen and Frank H. H. Roberts Jr., “Lindenmeier, 1934–1974: Concluding Report on Investigations,”
Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology
24 (1978).

  30   Early studies of the Basarwa are found in Lorna Marshall, “The Kin Terminology of the !Kung Bushmen,”
Africa
27 (1957): 1–25, and “!Kung Bushmen Bands,”
Africa
30 (1960): 325–354; George B. Silberbauer,
Bushman Survey Report
(Bechuanaland Government Press, Gaborone, 1965); Richard B. Lee, “What Hunters Do for a Living, or, How to Make Out on Scarce Resources,” in Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.,
Man the Hunter
(Aldine, Chicago, 1968), 30–48, and “!Kung Bushmen Subsistence: An Input-Output Analysis,” in Andrew P. Vayda, ed.,
Environment and Cultural Behavior
(Natural History Press, New York, 1969), 47–79. A classic overview of the !Kung is found in Richard B. Lee,
The !Kung San
(Cambridge University Press, 1979), which includes a description of arrow exchange. Hxaro exchange is described in Pauline Wiessner, “Hxaro: A Regional System of Reciprocity for Reducing Risk among the !Kung San” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1977). The anthropology and archaeology of Basarwa camps are discussed in John E. Yellen,
Archaeological Approaches to the Present: Models for Reconstructing the Past
(Academic Press, New York, 1977). An overview of !Kung cosmology can be found in Lorna J. Marshall, “Nyae Nyae !Kung Beliefs and Rites,”
Peabody Museum Monographs
8 (Harvard University, 1999).

  35   See James Woodburn’s “An Introduction to Hadza Ecology,” in Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.,
Man the Hunter
(Aldine, Chicago, 1968), 49–55; “Stability and Flexibility in Hadza Residential Groupings,” in Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,
Man the Hunter,
103–110; “Ecology, Nomadic Movement and the Composition of the Local Group among Hunters and Gatherers: An East African Example and Its Implications,” in Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, and Geoffrey W. Dimbleby, eds.,
Man, Settlement and Urbanism
(Duckworth, London, 1972), 193–206; “African Hunter-Gatherer Social Organization: Is It Best Understood as a Product of Encapsulization?” in Tim Ingold, David Riches, and James Woodburn, eds.,
Hunters and Gatherers, vol. 1: History, Evolution and Social Change
(Berg, Oxford, 1988), 31–64. See, also, two papers by Kristen Hawkes, James F. O’Connell, and Nicholas Blurton Jones, “Hadza Women’s Time Allocation, Offspring Provisioning, and the Evolution of Long Postmenopausal Life Spans,”
Current Anthropology
38 (1997): 551–577, and “Hadza Meat Sharing,”
Evolution and Human Behavior
22 (2001): 113–142.

  37   For interesting discussions of the early evolution of human social groups and kinship systems, see Nicholas J. Allen, Hillary Callan, Robin Dunbar, and Wendy James, eds.,
Early Human Kinship: From Sex to Social Reproduction
(Blackwell, Oxford, 2008).

  38   Marshall D. Sahlins, “The Social Life of Monkeys, Apes, and Primitive Men,” in Morton H. Fried, ed.,
Readings in Anthropology,
vol. 2 (Thomas Y. Crowell, New York, 1959), 186–199.

  38   William S. Laughlin, “Hunting: An Integrating Behavioral System and Its Evolutionary Importance,” in Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.,
Man the Hunter
(Aldine, Chicago, 1968), 304–320.

CHAPTER 3: ANCESTORS AND ENEMIES

  40   Raymond C. Kelly,
Warless Societies and the Origin of War
(University of Michigan Press, 2000). For additional reading, see Lawrence H. Keeley,
War Before Civilization
(Oxford University Press, 1996); Steven A. LeBlanc,
Constant Battles
(St. Martin’s, New York, 2003); Keith F. Otterbein,
The Anthropology of War
(Waveland Press, Long Grove, Ill., 2009).

  41   Fred Wendorf, “Site 117: A Nubian Final Paleolithic Graveyard Near Jebel Sahaba, Sudan,” in Fred Wendorf, ed.,
The Prehistory of Nubia,
vol. 2 (Southern Methodist University Press, 1968), 954–995; Fred Wendorf and Romuald Schild, “Late Paleolithic Warfare in Nubia: The Evidence and Causes,”
Adumatu: A Semi-Annual Archaeological Refereed Journal on the Arab World
10 (2004): 7–28.

  42   A. R. Radcliffe-Brown,
The Andaman Islanders
(Cambridge University Press, 1922).

  46   Adolphus P. Elkin,
The Australian Aborigines
(Doubleday-Anchor, Garden City, N.Y., 1964); Ian Keen,
Aboriginal Economy and Society
(Oxford University Press, 2004); M. J. Meggitt,
Desert People: A Study of the Walbiri Aborigines of Central Australia
(Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1962).

  47   H. Ling Roth,
The Aborigines of Tasmania: Second Edition
(F. King & Sons, Halifax, UK, 1899).

  48   Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen,
The Native Tribes of Central Australia
(Macmillan & Co., London, 1899), and
The Northern Tribes of Central Australia
(Macmillan & Co., London, 1904).

  53   W. Lloyd Warner,
A Black Civilization
(Harper & Bros., New York, 1937).

CHAPTER 4: WHY OUR ANCESTORS HAD RELIGION AND THE ARTS

  55   Donald E. Brown,
Human Universals
(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991).

  56   Nicholas Wade,
The Faith Instinct: How Religion Evolved and Why It Endures
(Penguin Press, New York, 2009).

  56   Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, “Ethnoscience of the Sixteenth-Century Valley Zapotec,” in Richard I. Ford, ed., “The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany,”
Anthropological Papers
67 (Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1978), 51–79.

  57   Roy A. Rappaport, “The Sacred in Human Evolution,”
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2 (1971): 23–44, and
Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity
(Cambridge University Press, 1999).

  58   John C. Mitani, David P. Watts, and Martin N. Miller, “Recent Developments in the Study of Wild Chimpanzee Behavior,”
Evolutionary Anthropology
11 (2002): 9–25; Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson,
Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence
(Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1996).

  59   Christopher Boehm,
Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior
(Harvard University Press, 1999).

  62   Yosef Garfinkel, in
Dancing at the Dawn of Agriculture
(University of Texas Press, 2003), confirms the link between art and dance by showing how often dancing was represented in prehistoric art.

  62   The churinga ilpintira is described by Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen in
The Northern Tribes of Central Australia
(Macmillan & Co., London, 1904).

  63   Edward O. Wilson,
On Human Nature
(Harvard University Press, 1978).

CHAPTER 5: INEQUALITY WITHOUT AGRICULTURE

  67   Useful introductions to California’s Native Americans can be found in A. L. Kroeber, “Handbook of California Indians,”
Bulletin 78
(Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, 1925), and Robert F. Heizer, ed.,
Handbook of North America Indians, vol. 8: California
(Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1978).

  68   Jeanne E. Arnold, ed., “Foundations of Chumash Complexity,”
Perspectives in California Archaeology
7 (Cotsen Institute of UCLA, Los Angeles, 2004); Jeanne E. Arnold, “Credit Where Credit Is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe,”
American Antiquity
72 (2007): 196–209.

  70   H. E. Bolton, ed., “Expedition to San Francisco Bay in 1770: Diary of Pedro Fagés,”
Publications
2, no. 3 (1911): 141–159 (University of California Academy of Pacific Coast History); Pedro Fagés, “The Chumash Indians of Santa Barbara,” in Robert F. Heizer and M. A. Whipple, eds.,
The California Indians: A Sourcebook
(University of California Press, Berkeley, 1951), 255–261.

  71   Useful introductions to the Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest can be found in Wayne Suttles, ed.,
Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 7: Northwest Coast
(Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1990).

  74   Philip Drucker, “The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes,”
Bulletin 114
(Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, 1951); Eugene Arima and John Dewhirst, “Nootkans of Vancouver Island,” in Wayne Suttles, ed.,
Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 7,
391–411.

  76   The Nootka whaling shrine at Jewitt’s Lake is described in Peter Nabokov and Robert Easton,
Native American Architecture
(Oxford University Press, 1989), and Eugene Arima and John Dewhirst, “Nootkans of Vancouver Island” (see previous reference).

  77   Gary Coupland, Terence Clark, and Amanda Palmer, “Hierarchy, Communalism, and the Spatial Order of Northwest Coast Plank Houses: A Comparative Study,”
American Antiquity
74 (2009): 77–106; Brian Hayden, “The Emergence of Large Villages and Large Residential Corporate Group Structures among Complex Hunter-Gatherers at Keatley Creek,”
American Antiquity
70 (2005): 169–174; Anna Marie Prentiss et al., “The Emergence of Status Inequality in Intermediate Scale Societies: A Demographic and Socio-Economic History of the Keatley Creek Site, British Columbia,”
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
26 (2007): 299–327; Anna Marie Prentiss et al., “Evolution of a Late Prehistoric Winter Village on the Interior Plateau of British Columbia: Geophysical Investigations, Radiocarbon Dating, and Spatial Analysis of the Bridge River Site,”
American Antiquity
73 (2008): 59–81.

  80   Frederica de Laguna, “Tlingit,” in Wayne Suttles, ed.,
Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 7,
203–228; George T. Emmons, “The Tlingit Indians,”
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History
70 (1991); Aurel Krause,
The Tlingit Indians
(University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1970); Kalervo Oberg,
The Social Economy of the Tlingit Indians
(University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1973).

  84   The Tutchone, Tagish, and Teslin are described in June Helm, ed.,
Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 6: Subarctic
(Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1981).

  85   Catherine McClellan, “The Inland Tlingit,” in Marian W. Smith, ed., “Asia and North America: Transpacific Contacts,”
Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology
9 (1953): 47–51, and “Inland Tlingit,” in June Helm, ed.,
Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 6,
469–480.

CHAPTER 6: AGRICULTURE AND ACHIEVED RENOWN

  91   The worldwide literature on the origins of plant and animal domestication is vast. Introductions to that literature can be found in Bruce D. Smith,
The Emergence of Agriculture
(Scientific American Library and W. H. Freeman, New York, 1995); C. Wesley Cowan and Patty Jo Watson, eds.,
The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective
(Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 1992); Melinda A. Zeder, Daniel G. Bradley, Eve Emshwiller, and Bruce D. Smith, eds.,
Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms
(University of California Press, 2006).