The Basic Works of Aristotle (Modern Library Classics) (188 page)

¹
The school of Eudoxus, Cf.
^b
9. Aristippus is perhaps also referred to.

²
The school of Speusippus, Cf. 1153
^b
5.

³
Phil.
60
B–E
.

⁴
Ib. 24
E
-25
A
, 31
A
.

⁵
SC
., of the badness of (some) pleasures.

⁶
Pl.
Phil.
53
C-
54
D
.

⁷
Ib. 31
E
-32
B
, 42
C
,
D.

⁸
The point being that the being replenished no more
is
pleasure than the being operated on
is
pain. For the instance, Cf. Pl.
Tim.
65
B
.

⁹
Phys.
vi–viii.

¹⁰
1095
^b
31–1096
^a
2, 1098
^b
31–1099
^a
7.

¹¹
1098
^a
5–7.

¹²
1099
^a
13, 1113
^a
22–33, 1166
^a
12, 1170
^a
14–16, 1176
^a
15—22.

¹³
1098
^a
16, 1176
^a
35–
^b
9.

¹⁴
This has not been said, but Cf. 1095
^b
14–1096
^a
5, 1141
^a
18–
^b
3, 1143
^b
33–1144
^a
6, 1145
^a
6–11.

¹⁵
1097
^a
25–
^b
21, 1099
^a
7–21, 1173
^b
15–19, 1174
^b
20–23, 1175
^b
36–1176
^a
3.

¹⁶
1169
^b
33, 1176
^b
26.

¹⁷
Pl.
Laws
722
D
ff.

¹⁸
Pl.
Prot.
325
A
.

¹⁹
1179
^b
31–1180
^a
5.

²⁰
Od.
ix. 114 f.

²¹
1141
^b
24.

²²
Isoc.
Antid.
§ 80.

²³
Ib. §§ 82, 83.

²⁴
1181
^b
12–23 is a programme for the
Politics
, agreeing to a large extent with the existing contents of that work.

   
CHAPTER

Chapters
1, 2.    
Definition and structure of the State.

  
1.
   The state is the highest form of community and aims at the highest good. How it differs from other communities will appear if we examine the parts of which it is composed.

  
2.
   It consists of villages which consist of households. The household is founded upon the two relations of male and female, of master and slave; it exists to satisfy man’s daily needs. The village, a wider community, satisfies a wider range of needs. The state aims at satisfying all the needs of men. Men form states to secure a bare subsistence; but the ultimate object of the state is the good life. The naturalness of the state is proved by the faculty of speech in man. In the order of Nature the state precedes the household and the individual. It is founded on a natural impulse, that towards political association.

  
3.
   Let us discuss the household, since the state is composed of households.

  
4.
   First as to slavery. The slave is a piece of property which is animate, and useful for action rather than for production.

  
5.
   Slavery is natural; in every department of the natural universe we find the relation of ruler and subject. There are human beings who, without possessing reason, understand it. These are natural slaves.

  
6.
   But we find persons in slavery who are not natural slaves. Hence slavery itself is condemned by some; but they are wrong. The natural slave benefits by subjection to a master.

  
7.
   The art of ruling slaves differs from that of ruling free men but calls for no detailed description; any one who is a natural master can acquire it for himself.

  
8.
   As to property and the modes of acquiring it. This subject concerns us in so far as property is an indispensable substratum to the household.

  
9.
   But we do not need that form of finance which accumulates wealth for its own sake. This is unnatural finance. It has been made possible by the invention of coined money. It accumulates money by means of exchange. Natural and unnatural finance are often treated as though they were the same, but differ in their aims;

10.
   Also in their subject-matter; for natural finance is only concerned with the fruits of the earth and animals.

11.
   Natural finance is necessary to the householder; he must therefore know about live stock, agriculture, possibly about the exchange of the products of the earth, such as wood and minerals, for money. Special treatises on finance exist, and the subject should be specially studied by statesmen.

12.
   Lastly, we must discuss and distinguish the relations of husband to wife, of father to child.

13.
   In household management persons call for more attention than things; free persons for more than slaves. Slaves are only capable of an inferior kind of virtue. Socrates was wrong in denying that there are several kinds of virtue. Still the slave must be trained in virtue. The education of the free man will be subsequently discussed.

  
1.
   To ascertain the nature of the ideal state we should start by examining both the best states of history and the best that theorists have imagined. Otherwise we might waste our time over problems which others have already solved.

         Among theorists, Plato in the
Republic
raises the most fundamental questions. He desires to abolish private property and the family.

  
2.
   But the end which he has in view is wrong. He wishes to make all his citizens absolutely alike; but the differentiation of functions is a law of nature. There can be too much unity in a state.

  
3.
   And the means by which he would promote unity are wrong. The abolition of property will produce, not remove, dissension. Communism of wives and children will destroy natural affection.

  
4.
   Other objections can be raised; but this is the fatal one.

  
5.
   To descend to details. The advantages to be expected from communism of property would be better secured if private property were used in a liberal spirit to relieve the wants of others. Private property makes men happier, and enables them to cultivate such virtues as generosity. The
Republic
makes unity the result of uniformity among the citizens, which is not the case. The good sense of mankind has always been against Plato, and experiment would show that his idea is impracticable.

  
6.
   Plato sketched another ideal state in the
Laws;
it was meant to be
more practicable than the other. In the
Laws
he abandoned communism, but otherwise upheld the leading ideas of the earlier treatise, except that he made the new state larger and too large. He forgot to discuss foreign relations, and to fix a limit of private property, and to restrict the increase of population, and to distinguish between ruler and subject. The form of government which he proposed was bad.

  
7.
   Phaleas of Chalcedon made equal distribution of property the main feature of his scheme. This would be difficult to effect, and would not meet the evils which Phaleas had in mind. Dissensions arise from deeper causes than inequality of wealth. His state would be weak against foreign foes. His reforms would anger the rich and not satisfy the poor.

  
8.
   Hippodamus, who was not a practical politician, aimed at symmetry. In his state there were to be three classes, three kinds of landed property, three sorts of laws. He also proposed to (1) create a Court of Appeal, (2) let juries qualify their verdicts, (3) reward those who made discoveries of public utility. His classes and his property system were badly devised. Qualified verdicts are impossible since jurymen may not confer together. The law about discoveries would encourage men to tamper with the Constitution. Now laws when obsolete and absurd should be changed; but needless changes diminish the respect for law.

  
9.
   The Spartans cannot manage their serf population. Their women are too influential and too luxurious. Their property system has concentrated all wealth in a few hands. Hence the citizen body has decreased. There are points to criticize in the Ephorate, the Senate, the Kingship, the common meals, the Admiralty. The Spartan and his state are only fit for war. Yet even in war Sparta is hampered by the want of a financial system.

  
10.
   The Cretan cities resemble Sparta in their constitutions, but are more primitive. Their common meals are better managed. But the Cosmi are worse than the Ephors. The Cretan constitution is a narrow and factious oligarchy; the cities are saved from destruction only by their inaccessibility.

  
11.
   The Carthaginian polity is highly praised, and not without reason. It may be compared with the Spartan; it is an oligarchy with some democratic features. It lays stress upon wealth; in Carthage all offices are bought and sold. Also, one man may hold several offices
together. These are bad features. But the discontent of the people is soothed by schemes of emigration.

  
12.
   Of lawgivers, Solon was the best; conservative when possible, and a moderate democrat. About Philolaus, Charondas, Phaleas, Draco, Pittacus, and Androdamas there is little to be said.

  
1.
   How are we to define a citizen? He is more than a mere denizen; private rights do not make a citizen. He is ordinarily one who possesses political power; who sits on juries and in the assembly. But it is hard to find a definition which applies to all so-called citizens. To define him as the son of citizen parents is futile.

  
2.
   Some say that his civic rights must have been justly acquired. But he is a citizen who has political power, however acquired.

  
3.
   Similarly the state is defined by reference to the distribution of political power; when the mode of distribution is changed a new state comes into existence.

  
4.
   The good citizen may not be a good man; the good citizen is one who does good service to his state, and this state may be bad in principle. In a constitutional state the good citizen knows both how to rule and how to obey. The good man is one who is fitted to rule. But the citizen in a constitutional state learns to rule by obeying orders. Therefore citizenship in such a state is a moral training.

  
5.
   Mechanics will not be citizens in the best state. Extreme democracies, and some oligarchies, neglect this rule. But circumstances oblige them to do this. They have no choice.

  
6.
   The aims of the state are two: to satisfy man’s social instinct, and to fit him for the good life. Political rule differs from that over slaves in aiming primarily at the good of those who are ruled.

  
7.
   Constitutions are bad or good according as the common welfare is, or is not, their aim. Of good Constitutions there are three: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Polity. Of bad there are also three: Tyranny, Oligarchy, Extreme Democracy. The bad are perversions of the good.

  
8.
   Democracies and Oligarchies are not made by the numerical proportion
of the rulers to the ruled. Democracy is the rule of the poor; oligarchy is that of the rich.

  
9.
   Democrats take Equality for their motto; oligarchs believe that political rights should be unequal and proportionate to wealth. But both sides miss the true object of the state, which is virtue. Those who do most to promote virtue deserve the greatest share of power.

  
10.
   On the same principle, Justice is not the will of the majority or of the wealthier, but that course of action which the moral aim of the state requires.

  
11.
   But are the Many or the Few likely to be the better rulers? It would be unreasonable to give the highest offices to the Many. But they have a faculty of criticism which fits them for deliberative and judicial power. The good critic need not be an expert; experts are sometimes bad judges. Moreover, the Many have a greater stake in the city than the Few. But the governing body, whether Few or Many, must be held in check by the laws.

  
12.
   On what principle should political power be distributed? Granted that equals deserve equal shares; who are these equals? Obviously those who are equally able to be of service to the state.

  
13.
   Hence there is something in the claims advanced by the wealthy, the free born, the noble, the highly gifted. But no one of these classes should be allowed to rule the rest. A state should consist of men who are equal, or nearly so, in wealth, in birth, in moral and intellectual excellence. The principle which underlies Ostracism is plausible. But in the ideal state, if a pre-eminent individual be found, he should be made a king.