Religion 101 (15 page)

No Room for Terrorism

The Qur’an clearly condemns actions that transgress beyond what is considered lawful and just. Acts of terrorism, including the murder of innocent civilians, are certainly considered transgressions beyond the limits of justice.

Throughout Islamic history, acts of transgression were dealt with harshly to deter anyone else from believing that such actions have merit or are useful ways to further a cause. Islamic courts have upheld capital punishment for those convicted of piracy, airplane hijacking, kidnapping, and genocide. Muslim leaders and individuals all over the world express condemnation and outrage when acts of terrorism are perpetrated upon innocent people, whether the terrorists are so-called Muslims or not.

ISLAMIC INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS

The House of Wisdom

At the height of the Islamic empire, the Muslim world was the center for learning. Scholars of many faiths traveled from all over the world to participate in research and scholarly exchanges in the large Muslim cities. Indeed, several centers of learning gathered students, teachers, and researchers to live and study together. They were the first organized schools in the Muslim world.

In the early years of Islam, those with religious knowledge informally tutored a group of students. Over time, more formal institutions of education were founded. The
madrasahs
, or schools for the training of religious and societal leaders, still exist today.

The Importance of Literacy

Islam places a very high value on literacy. Even during the early years, when Muslims were engaged in wars of defense, enemy prisoners of war could earn their freedom by teaching ten young Muslims how to read and write. Both girls and boys are encouraged to attend school, and in many Muslim countries, women outnumber men in university programs.

There were several fundamental principles of the
madrasah
. First was the idea that all knowledge must be based on a strong spiritual foundation. Second, education was to be open to all, including both boys and girls, on equal terms. Finally, while religious studies served as a foundation, the curriculum also included many other disciplines, including literature and poetry, mathematics and astronomy, and chemistry and the natural sciences.

For adult education, one of the most remarkable assemblies of scholars took place in Baghdad at the Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom). It was organized by Caliph al-Mamun, the son of Harun al-Rashid. In the eighth century, al-Mamun received permission from the Byzantine emperor to access the libraries of Constantinople and other cities. Scholars were dispatched to collect the scientific and philosophical manuscripts of the ancient Greeks, which were brought back to Baghdad for translation and study.

Religion 101 Question

What is the oldest university in the world?

The Quaraouiyine (Karaouine) University in Fez, Morocco, has the distinction of being the oldest continuously operating university in the world. This center of learning was founded by a Muslim woman, Fatima El-Fihria, in 859. The second-oldest university in the world (Al-Azhar) was founded in Egypt in the tenth century.

At Bayt al-Hikmah, scholars from around the world gathered to translate the Greek manuscripts and conduct their own independent research in the free academic environment. These scholars made incredible achievements in mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and medicine.

Famous Muslim Scientists

The Muslim world did more than just translate ancient works and pass them on to Europe at the end of the Dark Ages. Over the centuries, these works were studied, incorporated into the current framework of knowledge, and then expounded. Among the most notable achievements of Arab scholars were the introduction of Arabic numerals, the study of algebra, medical anatomical drawings, advances in optics, geographical maps, and the production of several scientific instruments, such as the astrolabe (used in ancient times to determine the position of the sun and stars).

Islamic scholars took up the study of Greek medicine very early on. Translators at Bayt al-Hikmah worked diligently to translate the works of Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Galen, and others into Arabic. Harun al-Rashid created the first modern hospital in Baghdad in 805.

Abu Bakr Al-Razi is one of the best-known contributors to medical knowledge. A native of Persia (present-day Iran, near Tehran), Al-Razi traveled to Baghdad to study medicine and later became director of a large hospital there. He wrote more than 200 books and was a master of observation and experimental medicine. Another great Muslim medical scholar is known in the West as Avicenna. Abu Ali ibn Sina was born in tenth-century Bukhara, Persia (present-day Uzbekistan). Ibn Sina was a young prodigy, engaging in studies of medicine, philosophy, and poetry.

Astronomy

The study of astronomy developed in Islamic society because of a religious need. Scholars needed to observe and study the sun and moon in order to determine the months of the lunar calendar, figure out the prayer and fasting times, and find the direction of the
qiblah
(direction of Mecca for prayer). Islamic scholars mapped the celestial sky, figured celestial orbits, and questioned the accuracy of Ptolemy’s theories.

How High Is the Sky?

The Muslim physicist Ibn Al-Haytham (965–1040) calculated the height of Earth’s atmosphere at 52,000 paces, which is equivalent to about thirty-two miles. His calculations were very accurate for the time; modern scholarship has concluded that the atmosphere extends thirty-one miles from Earth.

Muslim scientists built observatories all over the Islamic world and refined and revised Ptolemy’s catalog and coordinates for the stars. They also excelled in making astronomical instruments. In the eleventh century, Nasir Al-Tusi (1201–1274) of Baghdad invented the azimuth quadrant and the torquetum, early instruments used to compute and measure star positions.

One of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived was Abu Abdullah al-Khawarizmi (c. 780–c. 850). Born in modern-day Uzbekistan, he was raised near Baghdad and was associated with the great institutions of learning there. Al-Khawarizmi is known as the founder of algebra, and he also introduced the concept of the algorithm. Al-Khawarizmi also developed solutions for linear and quadratic equations and detailed trigonometric tables and geometric and arithmetical concepts.

Another famous mathematician, Abu Raihan Al-Biruni (973–1048), wrote about Earth’s rotation, made calculations of latitude and longitude, and used mathematical techniques to determine the seasons. As well he discussed the speed of light versus the speed of sound and accurately determined the weights of more than a dozen elements and compounds.

Geography

Many Muslim scientists were involved in the development of geographical knowledge. Muslims were among the first to calculate Earth’s circumference, publish detailed world maps, and study elements and minerals. Muslim geographers traveled all over the world to gather data.

Under the leadership of the mathematician Al-Khawarizmi, seventy geographers worked together to produce the first map of the globe, in 830. One of the better-known geographers was Al-Idrisi (1099–c. 1166), who was hired to produce a world map for the Norman King of Sicily, Roger II. Several of Al-Idrisi’s books were translated into Latin, and his work spread rapidly through Europe. Christopher Columbus used a map that was derived from Al-Idrisi’s work in his explorations of the New World.

English Words of Arabic Origin

The Muslim world had an incredible influence on the discovery and development of modern scientific ideas. This influence is reflected in the many English words that originated from the Arabic language.

THE QUR’AN

Sacred Teachings of Muhammad

Millions of people take the Qur’an as a guidebook to life. The ancient text discusses hundreds of topics on all aspects of life, including science, ethics, justice, history, social order, faith, and the afterlife. Along with the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, the Qur’an provides everything a Muslim needs to know about Islamic faith.

Facts about the Qur’an

• The text was revealed about 1,400 years ago to Prophet Muhammad.
  
• The original language of the Qur’an is Arabic.
  
• It is the last of all Holy Books.
  
• Revelation of the Qur’an did not happen all at once, but occurred over the course of about twenty-three years.
  

The Qur’an is made up of 114 Surahs (or Suras) — the Arabic term for a Qur’anic chapter — of varying lengths. A Surah is composed of numbered verses, with the longest Surah containing 286 verses. The Surahs were revealed in parts to the Prophet on certain occasions, and not in the order they are placed in the Qur’an. Qur’anic verses are referenced by Surah and verse; for example 33:36 means Surah 33, verse 36.

A Way of Life

Islam emerged from the Qur’an: without it there would be no Islam. It provides everything Muslims need to know about their religion. Although the Qur’an is fairly straightforward and logical, because of its extensiveness, it can seem inaccessible for people who don’t understand it well.

The Qur’an talks about an abundance of subjects. Apart from awing readers with its beautiful prose, it also awes scientists with surprisingly accurate information about microbiology, physiology, astronomy, and many other fields. Additionally, it is a book of historic recollections, telling stories about the prophets that came before Muhammad, such as Solomon, Abraham, and Moses.

Another important aspect of the Qur’an is that much of its text preaches high moral standards, urging people to abide by a strict code of ethics. For example, the Qur’an strongly condemns hypocrisy, fraud, and gossip, and encourages good qualities such as modesty, truthfulness, and kindness.

Above all, though, the Qur’an’s most significant objective is to allow humankind to learn about the Creator. As Allah speaks to humankind through the Qur’an, He tells them that He is the sole Supreme Being and the one and only Creator. He has no partners or family. He has full control of the universe and all that He created, and He is the only one to be worshiped.

In the Original

You can find the Qur’an sold in every corner of the globe, translated into most of the world’s languages. However, Muslims stress the importance of reading the Qur’an in its original language, Arabic, believing that translations dilute the message and take away from its natural beauty.

The Relationship Between Qur’an and Sunnah

As Islam is derived from the Qur’an, the smaller details are derived from the teachings of the Prophet. These teachings are called
Sunnah
.

Some Sunnah have to do with the way the Prophet carried out his daily life. Others give the Prophet’s explanation of Qur’anic text. These clarifications are found in the Hadith — quotes and anecdotes of Muhammad. There are thousands of Hadith that Muslims use to understand the Qur’an and Allah’s instructions thoroughly. A simple example would be as follows: The Qur’an states in reference to ablution, or ritual cleansing, that a person must wash his arms to the elbows, and his face, head, and feet. Prophet Muhammad complements the Qur’an by teaching his followers exactly how to wash, what other body parts to include, and the number of repetitions.

From a general perspective, the Qur’an and the Sunnah are the two sources of Islam. The Qur’an comes first, then the Sunnah complements it, explaining and clarifying what is difficult for the people to understand. Prophet Muhammad provided guidance through his Hadith and gave the people an example to follow. Muslims consider him the role model for Islam, and his teachings cannot be separated from the teachings of the Qur’an.