Mythology of the Iliad and the Odyssey (2 page)

A prosperous people, the Mycenaeans, like the Minoans, lived in independent communities built around palaces. The Mycenaeans, famed as fierce warriors, used bronze weapons and rode into battle in horse-drawn chariots. Because they frequently battled one another, the Mycenaeans protected their cities with strong walls. Although the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
were written after this period, Homer set both epics during the Mycenaean Age. The bulk of the major Greek myths are connected with Mycenaean cities and heroes.
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In the 1870s, archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated at Mycenae, where he discovered treasures such as masks of beaten gold, splendid jewelry, and weapons with intricate decorations. These discoveries provided evidence that there truly was a Mycenae “rich in gold,” as Homer had described it in the
Iliad
. Schliemann also led the first excavations at Troy and continuing archaeological study has provided additional evidence of a powerful Mycenaean-age city there. Archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered a Mycenaean-age palace at Pylos. Many historians believe that this is the palace of Nestor, the wise warrior of the
Iliad
. Thus, archaeology has provided proof that cities and heroes described in the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
actually existed. However, we must be careful to avoid assuming that every detail about the heroes and locations described in these myths is true.

At about the same time that Mycenaean civilization flourished, Minoan culture declined. Then, in about 1490 to 1470
B.C.
, the palaces on Crete were destroyed. Although historians remain uncertain as to what caused the ruins, archaeologists have located evidence of fire and massive destruction. The Mycenaeans may have invaded the island and destroyed its civilization or an earthquake may have caused the total destruction.

The Mycenaean culture collapsed not long after the destruction of Troy at the end of the thirteenth century
B.C.
There are many possible causes of the demise of the Mycenaean civilization. These include earthquake; drought; social unrest within Mycenaean society; loss of trade contacts; and invasion of the Dorians, a group of Greek-speaking invaders from the north and east. In fact, the relatively sudden, extensive, and thorough eradication of Mycenaean palatial civilization is likely to have been caused by a combination of these factors. It was a gradual process spread over a full century to a century and a half following the destruction of the last palace.

The decline of Mycenaean culture ushered in a period in Greek history known as the “Dark Age.” The elements that had made Greek civilization great, such as cities and palaces, art and the knowledge of writing, disappeared. Extensive migration occurred far beyond the boundaries of present-day Greece. Many historians believe that the epic stories of the return of the Greek heroes after the Trojan War, the
Nostoi
, portray these people movements. The strong rulers of the Mycenaean civilization had given way to a society organized around the family.

The earliest examples of the Greek alphabet date from the last half of the eighth century
B.C.
The Greeks began to record poems, plays, and most of the stories that are now considered part of Greek mythology.

By about 750
B.C.
, the Greek city-state, or
polis
, had formed. Each city-state was an independent, self-governing community which usually included the city and the surrounding rural area. Athens and Sparta were the most important city-states.

The city-states established colonies over a large area along the Mediterranean coasts and islands. Greek cities were established in Sicily and Italy, along the west coast of Asia Minor, and in the Black Sea region.

In 508
B.C.
, Athens became the first democracy in the world. The word “democracy” is based on the Greek words
demos
, “the people,” and
kratein
, “to rule.” Although Athens was a democracy, all of its people did not have the power to govern. Only citizens, defined as adult males who were born in Athens, were allowed to vote on issues related to governing the city-state. During this period, many Athenians owned slaves. Because women and slaves were not citizens, they were denied the right to vote.

This was the most famous period of ancient Greek civilization, a time when the Greeks reached their highest level of prosperity. Because of the leadership of the statesman Pericles, this period was termed “the Golden Age of Pericles.” Greeks excelled in philosophy, art, literature, history, medicine, and government. Greek mythology flourished as poets recited myths at festivals and in the homes of the wealthy, and the works of Homer supplied the foundation of Greek education.

Athens was the center of most of these important developments. As a result, other city-states such as Sparta became jealous of Athens’ power. In 431
B.C.
, the Peloponnesian War broke out between Sparta and Athens. After Athens ultimately lost the war in 404
B.C.
, the power of that city declined.

Internal warfare continued among the Greeks until 338
B.C.
, when Philip of Macedon, a region in the northern part of Greece, conquered most of the Greek mainland. When Philip died, his son, Alexander, conquered additional territory. He provided a unified government for Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and Greece. However, after Alexander’s sudden death at the age of thirty-three, his generals parceled out his empire among themselves. Still, even though Greece was politically divided, its cultural influence spread throughout all sections of society, especially since Greek was the language spoken at this time. What is known as Greek or Hellenistic influence continued for more than one thousand years.

Meanwhile, the power of Rome grew as the Romans conquered many tribes in Italy. By about 150
B.C.
, the Romans took control of Greece. They showed their respect for Greek culture by adopting many of its aspects, such as Greek art and literature. Although the Romans changed the names of many of the Greek gods, they adopted most of the Greek myths.

The Greeks believed in many gods and goddesses, which made them what is known as a polytheistic culture. They thought that the gods lived on Mount Olympus, an actual mountain in Thessaly, a region in north central Greece. According to legend, the gods could take on human form, leave their mountain home, and travel anywhere. The Greek gods felt human emotions such as anger, joy, and jealousy. Each god controlled at least one part of human life. For example, Zeus, king of the gods, was the god of thunder and ruled the sky.

The personalities and characteristics of the gods were not clearly defined until Homer wrote the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
.
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He portrayed the gods with vivid language. In the Homeric epics, the Olympian gods take sides in the war and even fight in some of the battles.

In particular, the gods react when the Homeric heroes show too much pride, or
hubris
. In the
Iliad
, both Achilles and Agamemnon refuse to give in to each other during their argument. This excessive pride directly influences the course of the Trojan War.

The role of the gods in the fate of mankind is another important part of the epics. Fate is the concept that life’s outcomes are predetermined. Usually Zeus controlled human destiny. He handed out his decisions through the Fates, three of his daughters. The fate of the heroes Achilles and Hector is already set at the beginning of the epics. However, even though the gods were so powerful, they, too, were subject to fate. For example, in the
Iliad
, Zeus could not prevent the death of his own son, Sarpedon.

These epics are now nearly 3,000 years old. Yet, they are still the subjects of scholarly debate over the “Homeric question,” which is actually a series of questions. Was Homer the author of the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
? When were these epics written down? How were they composed? No archaeological evidence exists to definitely answer these questions. However, the ancient Greeks believed that Homer was the author of the poems.
⁴
Many modern scholars note that both the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
have a total overall unity. These scholars believe that this unity proves that both poems had to be written by the same person.

However, other historians believe that the epics could not have been composed at one time by the same individual. Rather, they are collections of shorter
lays
, or simple narrative poems. These lays were combined to form the longer epic poem.

Modern scholars believe that the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
are based on a long tradition of oral poetry.
⁵
Both epics use repetition in phrases, word groups, and scenes. For example, the hero Achilles is repeatedly referred to as “godlike” and “swift-footed.” The god Apollo is “one who shoots from afar.” Common actions such as eating a meal or fighting a duel are described in a similar fashion. These repetitious phrases and scenes, or verbal formulas, were developed over the years by many ancient Greek poets. Since writing was not yet in use, the poets had to perform without using a written poem. Instead of memorizing many poems, they gradually learned these verbal formulas. With practice, the poets added more formulas to the collection they had memorized. They could then combine various scenes and phrases to improvise, thus creating long epic poems with little preparation.

But other historians point out that such a view ignores the magnificent scope and beautiful language of Homer’s work. Also, certain repeated phrases flow so poetically that they must have been intentionally created this way, not developed by a verbal formula.
⁶
An in-depth examination of certain types of scenes, such as a warrior arming for battle, has shown that none of the scenes are exactly alike. Even though some of the phrases within them are repeated, the scenes differ.
⁷
All these points make it difficult to believe that Homer depended on oral formulas and did not know how to write. However, there is enough repetition in his work that scholars agree that Homer’s work was based on a long tradition of oral poetry.
⁸
He then used the new technique of writing to refine and lengthen the poem. Most likely, such an effort took his entire lifetime.
⁹

The epics were preserved in writing at the beginning of the ninth century
B.C.
after the development of the Greek alphabet. Painstakingly, they were hand-copied onto rolls of papyrus, an Egyptian plant cut into strips and pressed to make a paper-type material.
¹⁰
Each book, or chapter, into which the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
is divided may have originally been transcribed onto a single roll. From the second to fifth centuries
A.D.
, the materials used to copy the books changed dramatically. Parchment pages bound into books replaced papyrus rolls. For 1,000 years after that, Homer’s works were scribed by hand onto paper or vellum, a fine-grained animal skin. The first machine-printed edition of the epics appeared in Florence, Italy, in 1488, and used a form of type that imitated Greek handwriting. Countless translations of Homer have been printed since then.

The
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
are the first poems written in Greek literature. As such, they are usually considered the oldest complete books of western civilization.
¹¹
Their rich, flowing poetry and colorful, heroic stories are a legacy worthy of continued reading and study.

The story of the Trojan War has attracted generations of scholars, archaeologists, and the general public, all of whom would like to prove that the war actually took place. We may never know for sure the relationship between the myths told of Troy and its actual existence. Still, whatever its foundation in historical fact, the Trojan War is considered by many historians and mythologists to be the most important story to have survived in Greek mythology.
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