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Authors: Carroll L Riley

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Page 254
Explorers of North America, 1492-1806
(Doubleday and Company, Garden City, N.Y., 1955). Early Spanish contact in the New World is discussed in: C. Jane, ed.,
The Four Voyages of Columbus
(Dover Publications, New York, 1988 [reprint of Hakluyt Society publications of 1930 and 1933]); A. R. Pagdon,
Hernán Cortés: Letters from Mexico
(Grossman Publishers, New York, 1971); A. Marrin,
Inca and Spaniard
(
Macmillan
, New York, 1988); and C. H. Haring,
The Spanish Empire in America
(Oxford University Press, New York, 1947). The Spanish "purification" decree of 1492 that forced the conversion of Jews or drove them from the country is discussed by H. Kamen, "The Expulsion: Purpose and Consequence,"
Spain and the Jews,
E. Kedourie, ed. (Thames and Hudson, London, 1992), pp. 74-91. Also consult A. L. Sachar,
A History of the Jews
(Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1967, 5th ed.), pp. 213-15. A similar decree against the Muslims was proclaimed in 1502. Both laws were aimed more at conversion than expulsion, and in fact the Inquisition had been set up 1478 originally to combat Judaizing tendencies among the converted population, the
conversos.
For a discussion of this, see E. Kedourie's introduction in
Spain and the Jews
, pp. 16-20.
For missionary activity, see Haring,
Empire
, 13, 179-203; J. Lafaye,
Quetzalcóatl et Guadalupe
(Editions Gallimard, Paris, 1974); and J. Cortés Castellanos,
El catecismo en pictogramas de Fr. Pedro de Gante
(Fundición Universitaria Española, Madrid, 1987), especially the introductory sections. There were, of course, Spanish missionary groups other than those I have mentioned in the New World. For example, the government of Hispaniola was given to members of the small Jeronymite order for a short period (1516-18). See H. Thomas,
Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Mexico
(Simon and Schuster, New York and London, 1993) pp. 74-75. However, the "big three" made the most powerful impression on Native Americans.
Spanish inflation in the sixteenth century is considered in D. J. Boorstin,
The Discoverers
(Random House, New York, 1983), p. 653. For the relationship of the Spanish government and people with Jews and
conversos
(Jewish converts, often forced converts, to Christianity), see H. Beinart, "The Conversos and Their Fate,"
Spain and the Jews
, E. Kedourie, ed. (Thames and Hudson, London, 1992), pp. 92-122. The split with Portugal and the results of the Catalan war are given in Elliott,
Revolt
, pp. 516-18, 523-52. The long-standing weaknesses of the Spanish economy are discussed by Ramsey,
Spain
, pp. 80-83.
Chapter 2, The Native Americans
For a general discussion of the prehistoric cultures, especially in the Rio Grande Valley, see C. L. Riley,
Rio del Norte
(University of Utah Press, 1995), chaps. 3-8. Additional information can be found in A. H. Simmons
Page 255
et al.,
Human Adaptations and Cultural Change in the Greater Southwest
, prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Southwestern Division, 1989. See also L. S. Cordell,
Prehistory of the Southwest
(Academic Press, 1984). For Mogollon connections to the western Pueblos, see T. R. Frisbie, "Zuni and the Mogollon: A New Look at an Old Question,"
Recent Research in Mogollon Archaeology
, S. Upham, F. Plog, D. G. Batcho, and B. E. Kauffman, eds. (The University Museum, New Mexico State University Occasional Papers, 10, Las Cruces, N.Mex., 1984), pp. 98-114. Oshara is treated in C. Irwin-Williams,
The Oshara Tradition
(Eastern New Mexico University Contributions in Anthropology, 5, 1973). The name
Anasazi
was first used by Kidder in 1936 (A. L. Kidder and A. O. Shepard,
The Pottery of Pecos
[Yale University Press, New Haven], vol. 2, p. 590). For a discussion of its meaning, see "In the News" commentary,
American Archaeology
2 (2) (1998): 10. For late Hopi archaeology, see E. C. Adams,
Synthesis of Hopi Prehistory and History
(Final Report presented to the National Park Service, Southwest Region, July 31, 1978), pp. 14-16. For the prehistoric distribution of languages in the upper Southwest, see Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 96-105. There have been various classifications of Southwestern cultures. Figure 2 shows the Pecos classification of Kidder, the subsequent Rio Grande classification, and another classification developed in the 1930s by the archaeologist F. H. H. Roberts Jr. of the Smithsonian Institution.
Clearly, glaze wares were diffused from the west, probably from an earlier Mexican homeland. See D. H. Snow, "The Rio Grande Glaze, Matte-Paint, and Plainware Tradition,"
Southwestern Ceramics: A Comparative Review,
A. H. Schroeder, ed.,
Arizona Archaeologist 15
(1982): 235-78, 243-48. In addition, M. P. Stanislawski ("The American Southwest as seen from Pecos," manuscript prepared for the National Park Service, Southwest Regional Office, Santa Fe, N.Mex., Feb. 1983, pp. 359-61) sees the possibility of western immigrants into the Rio Grande and Pecos Valleys. Stanislawski thinks that the Pecos Pueblo quadrangle with associated galleries in the upper stories is basically western in form. A discussion of the kachina cult can be found in Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 107-12. See also P. Schaafsma and C. F. Schaafsma, "Evidence for the Origins of the Kachina Cult,"
American Antiquity
39 (4) (1974): 535-45; E. C. Adams,
The Origin and Development of the Pueblo Katsina Cult
(University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1991), pp. 3-4, 185-91; and E. C. Adams, "The Katsina Cult: A Western Pueblo Prospective,''
Kachinas in the Pueblo World
, P. Schaafsma, ed., (University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1994), pp. 35-46. The importance of Casas Grandes is discussed by C. F. Schaafsma and C. L. Riley, "The Casas Grandes World: Analysis and Conclusions,''
The Casas Grandes World
, C. F. Schaafsma and C. L. Riley, eds. (University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, 1999). The divine
Page 256
twins and solar-lunar animal associations are discussed by M. Thompson, "The Evolution of Mimbres Iconography," in P. Schaafsma, ed.,
Kachinas in the Pueblo World
, pp. 93-105.
For the Golden Age of the Pueblos, consult Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 93-118, and for a bibliography on the Golden Age, see pp.287-291. Foodstuffs, both agricultural and wild, are discussed on pp. 122-26. For the Sonoran statelets, see C. L. Riley,
The Frontier People
(University of New Mexico Press, 1987), pp. 39-96, and Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 199-207. For the home range of the scarlet macaw, consult L. L. Hargrave,
Mexican Macaws
(Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, no. 20, 1970), p. 10. For Querechos and Teyas, see Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 190-92; also C. L. Riley, "The Teya Indians of the Southwestern Plains,"
The Coronado Expedition to Tierra Nueva
, R. Flint and S. C. Flint, eds. (University Press of Colorado, Niwot, 1977), pp. 320-43.
Chapter 3, A Clash of Cultures
For a discussion of Pueblo languages in historic times, see Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 96-105. For Suma and Manso, consult Riley,
Teya,
pp. 320-43. There are many accounts of the Spanish conquest of Mexico; a discussion of sources is given in Riley,
Rio del Norte,
pp. 293-95. One recent and rather detailed study of the Cortés period is Thomas,
Conquest.
For the early Spanish operation on the west coast of Mexico, see B. C. Hedrick and C. L. Riley,
Documents Ancillary to the Vaca Journey
(Southern Illinois University, University Museum Studies, no. 5, Carbondale, 1976). For the quotes from the Vaca sojourn at La Junta, consult Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca,
La relación y comentarios
(later referred to as
Naufragios
) (Madrid, 1555), fol. xliii. What is sometimes called the "joint report" has basically the same material; see B. C. Hedrick and C. L. Riley, eds. and trans.,
Journey of the Vaca Party
(Southern Illinois University, University Museum Studies, no. 2, Carbondale, 1974), pp. 59-62. This document suggests that the little Spanish party may have gone northwest after leaving La Junta. A discussion of stone boiling in the western Plains can be found in R. H. Lowie,
Indians of the Plains
(American Museum Science Books, New York, 1963), pp. 25-26.
C. O. Sauer (
The Road to Cibola
[Ibero-Americana, no. 3, 1932]) believed that the Vaca group may have gone far enough north to skirt the southern edge of the Mimbres Mountains and then swung south, perhaps near present-day Douglas, Arizona, and Cananea, Sonora, finally reaching the Sonora River. For a discussion of these matters, see A. D. Krieger, "The Travels of Alvar Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca in Texas and Mexico, 1534-1536" (in
Homenaje a Pablo Martínez del Rio
Page 257
[INAH, México, D.F., 1961]), pp. 459-74, esp. pp. 463, 469-71. Krieger believed that Cabeza de Vaca ascended the north side of Rio Grande for about 150 miles and then struck out westward. Charles Di Peso (in C. C. Di Peso, J. B. Rinaldo, and G. J. Fenner,
Casas Grandes: A Fallen Trading Center of the Gran Chichimeca
[Amerind Foundation, Dragoon, Ariz., and Northland Press, Flagstaff, Ariz., 1974], vol. 4, pp. 56-74) took the Cabeza de Vaca party generally westward from La Junta, but to the south of Casas Grandes, into the eastern arm of the Bavispe and then the main Yaqui drainage. Di Peso's Corazones, however, is on the Yaqui, which seems a very unlikely location. On the whole I incline to Sauer's route, although the evidence is equivocal for any given route.
Information on the de Soto expedition can be found in J. R. Swanton,
Indians of the Southeastern United States
(Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 137, Washington, D.C., 1946), pp. 39-59. The basic documents of the Coronado expedition have been published in a generally (though not entirely) dependable English translation in G. P. Hammond and A. Rey,
Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542
(University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1940). For the report of Fray Marcos, see pp. 63-82. For the discovery of gold, see p. 80. Another version of the Marcos report is given in G. B. Ramusio,
Delle navigationi et viaggi. . .
, vol. 3 (In Venetia appressi I Guinti, 1556). This differs from the Spanish version in a description of gold at Cibola (see fol. 359d).
A collection of Coronado documents appears in G. P. Winship,
The Coronado Expedition, 1540-42
(in the fourteenth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1892-1893, Washington, 1896). This source is valuable for its reproduction of the Spanish version of the important Castafieda account, done from the one manuscript copy of Pedro de Castafieda's journal known today. This manuscript, in a rather cramped hand, is dated 1596 and is presently in the New York City Library. The Winship transcription generally agrees with the original manuscript, but there are minor differences.
Other documents that shed light on the Coronado expedition are F. López de Gómara,
Historia general de las Indias
, 2 vols., (Calpe, Madrid, 1922 [first published in 1554, twelve years after Coronado's return]). In the mid-seventeenth century the Franciscan friar Antonio Tello, in
Libro segundo de la crónica miscelanea . . .
(Imprenta de La Republica Literaria, Guadalajara, 1891), gives a considerable amount of information about Coronado, and in the mid-eighteenth century, M. de Mota Padilla (
Historia de la conquista de la provincia de la Nueva-Galicia
[Publicado de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, Imprinta del Gobierno en Palacio, México, 1870]) also has information on Coronado. The Southwest portions of Mota Padilla's work have been translated by A. G. Day, "Mota Padilla in the Coronado Expedition,"
Hispanic American Historical
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