Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently (33 page)

3.
See Everett M. Rogers,
Diffusion of Innovations
, 5th ed. (New York: Free Press, 2003).

4.
See Frank M. Bass, “A New Product Growth for Model Consumer Durables,”
Management Science
15, no. 5 (1969): 215–227.

5.
Wilfrid Sheed, “Virologist,”
Time
, March 29, 1999.

6.
See Kerstin Preuschoff, Peter Bossaerts, and Steven R. Quartz, “Neural Differentiation of Expected Reward and Risk in Human Subcortical Structures,”
Neuron
51, no. 3 (2006): 381–390.

7.
See Birgit Abler et al., “Prediction Error as a Linear Function of Reward Probability Is Coded in Human Nucleus Accumbens,”
Neuroimage
31 (2006): 790–795.

8.
See John D. Beaver et al., “Individual Differences in Reward Drive Predict Neural Responses to Images of Food,”
Journal of Neuroscience
26, no. 19 (2006): 5160–5166.

9.
See Arthur W. Toga, Paul M. Thompson, and Elizabeth R. Sowell, “Mapping Brain Maturation,”
Trends in Neurosciences
29, no. 3 (2006): 148–159.

10.
See Elizabeth M. Tunbridge et al., “Catechol-o-methyltransferase Enzyme Activity and Protein Expression in Human Prefrontal Cortex Across the Postnatal Lifespan,”
Cerebral Cortex
17, no. 5 (2006): 1206–1212.

Appendix: The Iconoclast’s Pharmacopoeia

1.
For a comprehensive modern review of the psychobiology of hallucinogens, see David E. Nichols, “Hallucinogens,”
Pharmacology & Therapeutics
101 (2004): 131–181.

2.
The most comprehensive catalog of these substances, and their subjective effects, is to be found in the pair of books by Alexander and Ann Shulgin, the husband-and-wife team of “chemical explorers.” See Alexander Shulgin and Ann Shulgin,
PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story
(Berkeley, CA: Transform Press, 1991); and Alexander Shulgin and Ann Shulgin,
TiHKAL: The Continuation
(Berkeley, CA: Transform Press, 1997). PiHKAL stands for “phenethylamines I have known and loved.” TiHKAL stands for “trypt-amines I have known and loved.”

3.
See John Horgan,
Rational Mysticism: Dispatches from the Border Between Science and Spirituality
(New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 2003).

4.
See M. Spitzer et al., “Increased Activation of Indirect Semantic Associations Under Psilocybin,”
Biological Psychiatry
39 (1996): 1055–1057.

5.
See Nichols, “Hallucinogens,” 131–181.

6.
See D. F. Wong et al., “Localization of Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptors in Living Human Brain by Positron Emission Tomography Using N1-([11C]-methyl)-2-Br-LSD,”
Synapse
1, no. 5 (1987): 393–398.

7.
See F. X. Vollenweider et al., “Positron Emission Tomography and Fluo-rodeoxyglucose Studies of Metabolic Hyperfrontality and Psychopathology in the Psilo-cybin Model of Psychosis,”
Neuropsychopharmacology
16 (1997): 357–372.

8.
See Nichols, “Hallucinogens,“131–181.

9.
See Franklin R. Schneier, “Social Anxiety Disorder,”
New England Journal of Medicine
355 (2006): 1029–1036.

10.
See Jacek Debiec and Joseph E. LeDoux, “Noradrenergic Signaling in the Amygdala Contributes to the Reconsolidation of Fear Memory: Treatment Implications for PTSD,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1071 (2006): 521–524; and James L. McGaugh, “Memory—a Century of Consolidation,”
Science
287 (2000): 248–251.

11.
See Peter D. Kramer,
Listening to Prozac
(New York: Viking, 1993).

12.
See Robert D. Rogers et al., “Tryptophan Depletion Alters the Decision-Making of Healthy Volunteers Through Altered Processing of Reward Cues,”
Neuropsychophar-macology
28 (2003): 153–162.

13.
See Matt Field et al., “Delay Discounting and the Alcohol Stroop in Heavy Drinking Adolescents,”
Addiction
102 (2007): 579–586.

14.
See D. S. Leland et al., “Young Adult Stimulant Users’ Increased Striatal Activation During Uncertainty Is Related to Impulsivity,”
Neuroimage
33, no. 2 (2006): 725–731.

15.
See B. Knutson et al., “Amphetamine Modulates Human Incentive Processing,”
Neuron
43 (2004): 261–269.

16.
See Sarah H. Heil et al., “Delay Discounting in Currently Using and Currently Abstinent Cocaine-Dependent Outpatients and Non-Drug-Using Matched Controls,”
Addictive Behaviors
31 (2006): 1290–1294.

17.
See D. Weintraub et al., “Association of Dopamine Agonist Use with Impulse Control Disorders in Parkinson Disease,”
Archives of Neurology
63, no. 7 (2006): 969–973.

18.
See P. Rihet et al., “Dopamine and Human Information Processing: A Reaction-Time Analysis of the Effect of Levodopa in Healthy Subjects,”
Psychopharmacology
163 (2002): 62–67.

19.
See Mathias Pessiglione et al., “Dopamine-Dependent Prediction Errors Underpin Reward-Seeking Behaviour in Humans,”
Nature
442 (2006): 1042–1045.

20.
See Zoe Tieges et al., “Caffeine Improves Anticipatory Processes in Task Switching,”
Biological Psychiatry
73, no. 2 (2006): 101–113.

21.
See W. D. Killgore et al., “The Effects of Caffeine, Dextroamphetamine, and Modafinil on Humor Appreciation During Sleep Deprivation,”
Sleep
29, no. 6 (2006): 841–847.

22.
See Brady Reynolds et al., “Delay Discounting and Probability Discounting as Related to Cigarette Smoking Status in Adults,”
Behavioural Processes
65 (2004): 35–42.

23.
See Pessiglione et al., “Dopamine-Dependent Prediction Errors,” 1042–1045.

24.
See E. Ron de Kloet, Melly S. Oitzl, and Marian Joëls, “Stress and Cognition: Are Corticosteroids Good or Bad Guys?”
Trends in Neurosciences
22, no. 10 (1999): 422–426.

25.
See Werner Plihal et al., “Corticosteroid Receptor Mediated Effects on Mood in Humans,”
Psychoneuroendocrinology
21, no. 6 (1996): 515–523; Sonia J. Lupien et al., “The Modulatory Effects of Corticosteroids on Cognition: Studies in Young Human Populations,”
Psychoneuroendocrinology
27 (2002): 401–416; and Heather C. Abercrombie et al., “Cortisol Variation in Humans Affects Memory for Emotionally Laden and Neutral Information,”
Behavioral Neuroscience
117, no. 3 (2003): 505–516.

26.
See K. Sreekumaran Nair et al., “DHEA in Elderly Women and DHEA or Testosterone in Elderly Men,”
New England Journal of Medicine
355, no. 16 (2006): 1647–1659.

27.
See E. J. Hermans, P. Putman, and J. van Honk, “Testosterone Administration Reduces Empathetic Behavior: A Facial Mimicry Study,”
Psychoneuroendocrinology
31 (2006): 859–866; and E. J. Hermans et al., “A Single Administration of Testosterone Reduces Fear-Potentiated Startle in Humans,”
Biological Psychiatry
59 (2006): 872–874.

28.
See Gregor Domes et al., “Oxytocin Improves ‘Mind-Reading’ in Humans,”
Biological Psychiatry
61 (2007): 731–733.

29.
See M. Kosfeld et al., “Oxytocin Increases Trust in Humans,”
Nature
435 (2005): 673–676.

30.
See Peter Kirsh et al., “Oxytocin Modulates Neural Circuitry for Social Cognition and Fear in Humans,”
Journal of Neuroscience
25, no. 49 (2005): 11489–11493.

GREGORY BERNS IS THE DISTINGUISHED
Chair of Neuroeconomics at Emory University, where he directs the Center for the Biological Study of Collective Action. He is a professor in the departments of psychiatry and economics and in the Goizueta Business School. He is a founding member of the Society for Neuroeconomics. For the past fifteen years, he has used brain imaging technologies to study the neurobiology of human motivation and decision making, especially the effects of novelty and peer pressure. His work has been published in prestigious journals like
Science and Neuron
, and he is the author of
Satisfaction
, a book about the neurobiology of happiness. Professor Berns appears frequently in the media, including the
Wall Street Journal
, the
New York Times
, CNN, and
Primetime
. He received an AB in physics from Princeton University; a PhD in biomedical engineering from the University of California, Davis; and an MD from the University of California, San Diego.