I Can Hear You Whisper (39 page)

Anu Sharma
:
Author interview; Anu Sharma, Michael F. Dorman, and Anthony J. Spahr, “A Sensitive Period for the Development of the Central Auditory System in Children with Cochlear Implants: Implications for Age of Implantation,”
Ear and Hearing
23 no. 6 (2002): 532–539; Phillip M. Gilley, Anu Sharma, and Michael F. Dorman, “Cortical Reorganization in Children with Cochlear Implants,”
Brain Research
1239 (2008): 56–65; Anu Sharma, Amy A. Nash, and Michael Dorman, “Cortical Development, Plasticity and Re-organization in Children with Cochlear Implants,”
Journal of Communication Disorders
42 no. 4 (2009): 272–279.

CHAPTER 12: CRITICAL BANDWIDTHS

This chapter is based on interviews with Graeme Clark, Margaret Clark, Richard Dowell, Hugh McDermott, Peter Blamey, Rob Shepherd, Bob Cowan, Michael Merzenich, Don Eddington, and Michael Dorman.

Graeme Clark
:
Author interviews; Graeme Clark,
Sounds from Silence
:
Graeme Clark and the Bionic Ear Story
, (Crows Nest, NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 2000) (
a colleague joked
, 211;
one particularly stubborn surgical question
, 93;
original diagram wider and higher
,
86;
Rod Saunders
, 117–121; quote from
George Watson
, 108;
F0F2
, 195–204); Blume,
The Artificial Ear,
42–57.

320,000 people use them
:
Because some of the manufacturers of cochlear implants are private companies, it is difficult to get an accurate, current figure for the number of users worldwide. This is the most recent figure available. It was provided by the Lasker Foundation when they awarded the 2013 Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award to Graeme Clark, Ingeborg Hochmair, and Blake Wilson.

UCSF
:
Author interviews; Robin P. Michelson, “Cochlear Implants: Personal Perspectives,” in Robert A. Schindler and Michael M. Merzenich, eds.,
Cochlear Implants
(New York: Raven, 1985).

“
Our system extracted information”
:
Biographical monograph, Michael Merzenich, courtesy of Michael Merzenich; Blume,
The Artificial Ear
, 37, 46.

Fletcher had introduced the concept of critical bandwidth
:
Fletcher interview with Bruce Bogert at Bell Labs circa 1963; Millman, ed.,
A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System,
99–103 (vocoder).

University of
Utah
:
Author interviews;
On the Brain
, Fall 1994; Eddington, “Speech Recognition in Deaf Subjects.”

FDA approval
:
Blume,
The Artificial Ear
, 46–57.

The Utah device was sold
:
Author interview with Don Eddington.

“
for the first time”
:
FDA deputy commissioner Mark Novitch; Douglas Martin, “Dr. William F. House, Inventor of Pioneering Ear-Implant Device, Dies at 89,”
New York Times
, December 15, 2012.

CHAPTER 13: SURGERY

I know generally how the surgery went
:
Cochlear implant surgery is described in Debara L. Tucci and Thomas M. Pilkington, “Medical and Surgical Aspects of Cochlear Implantation,” in Niparko, ed.,
Cochlear Implants: Principles & Practices
, 161–186; video demonstration at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WMe3yr2ZnUI; George Alexiades et al., “Cochlear Implants for Infants and Children,” in Madell and Flexer, eds.,
Pediatric Audiology
, 183–191.

CHAPTER 14: FLIPPING THE SWITCH

This chapter is based on personal recollection as well as a later interview with Lisa Goldin, and George Alexiades et al., “Cochlear Implants for Infants and Children,” in Madell and Flexer, eds.,
Pediatric Audiology
.

Daniel Ling:
For Six-Sound Test, see Jane R. Madell, “Evaluation of Speech Perception in Infants and Children,” in Madell and Flexer, eds.,
Pediatric Audiology,
91
.

“bimodal” hearing
:
See R. H. Gifford et al., “Combined Electric and Contralateral Acoustic Hearing: Word and Sentence Recognition with Bimodal Hearing,”
Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
50 no. 4 (2007): 835; Ting Zhang, Michael F. Dorman, and Anthony J. Spahr, “Information from the Voice Fundamental Frequency (F0) Region Accounts for the Majority of the Benefit When Acoustic Stimulation Is Added to Electric Stimulation,”
Ear and Hearing
31 no. 1 (2010): 63–69; T. Y. C. Ching, E. Van Wanrooy, and H. Dillon, “Binaural-Bimodal Fitting or Bilateral Implantation for Managing Severe to Profound Deafness: A Review,”
Trends in Amplification
11 no. 3 (2007): 161–192.

CHAPTER 15: A PERFECT STORM

This chapter includes material from author interviews with Graeme Clark, Richard Dowell, Rob Shepherd, Peter Blamey, Hugh McDermott, Bill House, Paulette Fiedor, Simon Parisier, and Mark, Debi, and David Leekoff.

Caitlin Parton
:
60 Minutes
, November 8, 1992.

“People speak of the grief
 . . .” “
There were no other families
”
:
Melody James, speaking at the 102nd annual meeting of the Center for Hearing and Communication, online at http://www.chchearing.org/news-events/news-announcements/CHC-President-Letter%20.

Fewer than three thousand people
:
Wilson and Dorman,
Better Hearing with Cochlear Implants
, 2.

“There is no moral justification”
:
Medical World News
, June 11, 1984, 34.

Tracy Husted
:
See video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dWJNXEeE0Vw; House,
Struggles of a Medical Innovator,
88.

Consensus was growing
:
Wilson and Dorman,
Better Hearing with Cochlear Implants
, 2.

Cochlear, the
Australian company
:
Clark,
Sounds from Silence
, chap. 11.

Noel Cohen
:
Ibid., 158, 184–185.

the FDA had specified
:
Ibid., p. 176.

“
They said this device”
:
Steve Parton on
60 Minutes.

a new round of protests . . . “the best time to be Deaf”
:
Andrew Solomon, “Defiantly Deaf,”
New York Times
, August 28, 1994.

“The deaf community has begun”
:
Dolnick,
Atlantic Monthly
, September 1993.

Americans with Disabilities Act
:
http://www.ada.gov/.

“leveled the playing field” . . . “$2.5 billion per year”
:
Bonnie Poitras Tucker, “Deaf Culture, Cochlear Implants, and Elective Disability,”
Hastings Center Report
28 no. 4 (1998): 6–14.

Cheryl Heppner told
The Atlantic Monthly
:
Dolnick,
Atlantic Monthly
, September 1993.

1990 decision to approve cochlear implants
:
Blume,
The Artificial Ear,
55.

just another in a long line of medical “fixes”
:
Author interviews with Ted Supalla, Carol Padden, Peter Hauser, Irene Leigh, and Matthew Bakke; Christiansen and
Leigh,
Cochlear Implants in Children
, 256–161; Blume,
The Artificial Ear
, chap. 3; Padden and Humphries,
Inside Deaf Culture,
166–168.

“An implant is the ultimate invasion”
:
Matthew S. Moore and Linda Levitan,
For Hearing People Only
, 2nd ed., (Rochester, NY: Deaf Life, 1993), 191.

Roslyn Rosen
:
Quoted in
60 Minutes.

NAD had released an official statement
:
National Association of the Deaf position papers on cochlear implants, 1991, 2000. See also Christiansen and Leigh,
Cochlear Implants in Children,
257.

60 Minutes
also received angry letters
:
Atlantic Monthly,
43.

Confrontations between the Deaf community
:
For
Sourds en Colère
see Blume,
The Artificial Ear
, 106; “Cochlear Implants Protest in France,” DEAF-INFO, at http://www.zak.co.il/d/deaf-info/old/ci-france.

increased risk of meningitis
:
Raylene Paludneviciene and Raychelle L. Harris, “Impact of Cochlear Implants on the Deaf community,” in Raylene Paludneviciene and Irene W. Leigh, eds.,
Cochlear Implants: Evolving Perspectives
(Washington, DC, Gallaudet University Press, 2011), 6–7; Joseph Michael Valente, Benjamin Bahan, and H-Dirksen Bauman, “Sensory Politics and the Cochlear Implant Debates,” in Paludneviciene and Leigh, eds.,
Cochlear Implants: Evolving Perspectives
, chap. 12; Deaf Liberation Front press release, online at http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/Bioethics/message/5594.

In Melbourne, protesters
:
Clark,
Sounds from Silence
, 184 (photo).

“
Most of us would
love
”
:
Tucker, “Deaf Culture, Cochlear Implants, and Elective Disability.”

the Smithsonian . . . was planning an exhibit
:
http://www.handsandvoices.org/about/story.htm.

Gallaudet University was in the news again
:
Diana Jean Schemo, “Protests Continue at University for Deaf,”
New York Times,
May 13, 2006; Jane K. Fernandes, “Many Ways of Being Deaf,”
Washington Post
, October 14, 2006; Diana Jean Schemo, “Turmoil at College for Deaf Reflects Broader Debate,
New York Times,
October 21, 2006 (“
More parents are choosing
”)
; John B. Christiansen,
Reflections: My Life in the Deaf and Hearing Worlds
(Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2010), part 3.

Middle States Commission on Higher Education
:
“Statement of Accreditation Status: Gallaudet University,” online at http://www.msche.org/documents/SAS/237/Statement%20of%20Accreditation%20Status.htm.

The numbers spoke for themselves
:
Gallaudet University Annual Report, 2011.

CHAPTER 16: A CASCADE OF RESPONSES

This chapter is based on interviews with David Poeppel, Greg Hickok, Andrew Oxenham, Usha Goswami, and Jeff Walker and visits to the Poeppel Lab at New York University.

“run, don't walk”
:
Poeppel speaking at the McGovern Institute, April 27, 2012, online at http://video.mit.edu/watch/2012-mcgovern-institute-symposium-david-poeppel-11234/.

MEG
:
See http://web.mit.edu/kitmitmeg/whatis.html.

Anu Sharma
:
See chapter 11.

Eric Kandel
:
The Leonard Lopate Show
, WNYC, April 16, 2013.

Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who shared a Nobel Prize
:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1906/.

Each point where the response
:
The responses to stimuli are known as event-related potentials (ERPs). For more on ERPs, see Alexandra P. Fonaryova Key, Guy O. Dove, and Mandy J. Maguire, “Linking Brainwaves to the Brain: An ERP Primer,”
Developmental Neuropsychology
27 no. 2 (2005): 183–215.

bottom-up processing
:
For more information, see Andreas K. Engel, Pascal Fries, and Wolf Singer, “Dynamic Predictions: Oscillations and Synchrony in Top-down Processing,”
Nature Reviews Neuroscience
2 no. 10 (2001): 704–716.

Alvin Liberman . . . motor theory of speech perception
:
Alvin M. Liberman and Ignatius G. Mattingly, “The Motor Theory of Speech Perception Revised,”
Cognition
21 no. 1 (1985): 1–36.

representations and computations
:
See Patricia Smith Churchland and Terrence J. Sejnowski, “Neural Representation and Neural Computation,”
Philosophical Perspectives
4 (1990): 343–382; David C. Knill and Alexandre Pouget, “The Bayesian Brain: The Role of Uncertainty in Neural Coding and Computation,”
TRENDS in Neurosciences
27 no. 12 (2004): 712–719; Edmund T. Rolls and Gustavo Deco,
Computational Neuroscience of Vision
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Eric I. Knudsen, Sascha du Lac, and Steven D. Esterly, “Computational Maps in the Brain,”
Annual Review of Neuroscience
10 no. 1 (1987): 41–65.

predictive coding
:
For an example of how predictive coding works, see Gregory Hickok, “The Cortical Organization of Speech Processing: Feedback Control and Predictive Coding the Context of a Dual-Stream Model,”
Journal of Communication Disorders
45 no. 6 (2012): 393–402.