High Price (42 page)

Acknowledgments

I
would like to thank two people who helped nurture this book along a path that proved to be more difficult than I initially thought: Claire Wachtel and Maia Szalavitz. Claire went far beyond her editorial responsibilities by serving in multiple roles. Thank you for treating me like a writer and for being my sounding board, clinical psychologist, and friend. Without your subtle but clear and firm guidance, this book would have been a superficial and uninteresting read. Maia, your professionalism is unmatched. You kept me on schedule despite my best efforts to delay and avoid dealing with difficult personal issues within these pages. I am also deeply appreciative of your teaching me how to write an engaging story. This is not a lesson taught in most science education programs.

Melissa and Marc Gerald, of course minus your efforts, this project would not have been undertaken. While serving on an NIH grant review committee with Melissa, late one evening at dinner, she suggested that I meet with her literary agent brother about writing a book. I thought she was just being kind by indulging my atypical ideas. As it turned out (and I am grateful), Marc agreed with her and put the Agency Group’s best efforts into seeing the project through to completion. Sasha Raskin, my coagent, thanks for being patient with my endless inquiries about the publishing process.

On most days, I feel fortunate to have an intellectual home at Columbia University in the departments of psychology and psychiatry and the Institute for Research in African-American Studies, where I learn from some of the most talented thinkers. I owe a tremendous debt to my many coauthors, colleagues, and students. These individuals took the time to teach me about drugs, science, and life. The arguments and discussions in which we engaged helped to shape several of the ideas put forth in this book. I am particularly indebted to Charles Ksir, James Rose, Fredrick Harris, Robert Krauss, Norma Graham, Lynn Paltrow, Rae Silver, Catalina Saldaña, and Susie Swithers. Some of these individuals even read and reacted to early drafts of the manuscript.

To my family, thank you all for your support and allowing me to share your stories. Robin’s early encouragement provided much of the fuel that helped me power through some inevitably difficult portions of the process. Writing this book would have been impossible were it not for the sharp memories of Jackie, Brenda, Beverly, Patricia, Joyce, Gary, and Ray. In addition, Ray’s ability to find obscure newspaper articles about Carver Ranches and our childhood friends is truly amazing. His research helped me to tell a richer story.

Finally, I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge a few government programs for their contributions toward my physical and intellectual development without which this book might not have been written: Aid to Families with Dependent Children (welfare as we once knew it), the National Institute on Drug Abuse’s Supplemental Grant for Minorities in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, and the National Institute of Mental Health–Society for Neuroscience Predoctoral Minority Fellowship. In recent years, programs aimed at redressing past American racial discrimination have come under attack. Without such programs, however, I seriously doubt that I would have become the scientist, educator, and tax-paying citizen that I am today.

Notes

CHAPTER 1: WHERE I COME FROM

1. J. C. Anthony, L. A. Warner, and R. C. Kessler, “Comparative Epidemiology of Dependence on Tobacco, Alcohol, Controlled Substances, and Inhalants: Basic Findings from the National Comorbidity Survey,”
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology
2 (1994): 244–68; L. A. Warner et al., “Prevalence and Correlates of Drug Use and Dependence in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey,”
Archives of General Psychiatry
52, no. 3 (March 1995): 219–29; M. S. O’Brien and J. C. Anthony, “Extra-Medical Stimulant Dependence Among Recent Initiates,”
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
104 (2009): 147–55; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
Results from the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings
, NSDUH series H-44, HHS publication no. (SMA) 12-4713 (Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2012).

2. Gwendolyn Mink,
Poverty in the United States: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, and Policy
(Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2004), vol. 1, p. 187.

3. Linda Swanson, “Racial/Ethnic Minorities in Rural Areas: Progress and Stagnation,” U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, AER731 (August 1996), www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aer731/aer731g.pdf. Also Manning Marable,
How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America
(London: Pluto Press, 1983), p. 45.

4. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies,
Results from the 2004 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings,
DHHS publication no. SMA 05-4062, NSDUH series H-28, 2005, http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/p0000016.htm#2k4.

5. Thomas P. Bonczar, “Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population, 1974–2001,” U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, NCJ 197976 (August 2003), www.policyalmanac.org/crime/archive/prisoners_in_US_pop.pdf.

CHAPTER 2: BEFORE AND AFTER

1. B. A. Pan, M. L. Rowe, J. D. Singer, and C. E. Snow, “Maternal Correlates of Growth in Toddler Vocabulary Production in Low-income Families,”
Child Development
76, no. 4 (July–August 2005): 763–82, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18300434; M. L. Rowe, “Child-Directed Speech: Relation to Socioeconomic Status, Knowledge of Child Development and Child Vocabulary Skill,”
Journal of Child Language
35, no. 1 (February 2008): 185–205, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16026495; M. L. Rowe and S. Goldin-Meadow, “Differences in Early Gesture Explain SES Disparities in Child Vocabulary Size at School Entry,”
Science
323 (February 2009): 951–53, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19213922.

2. P. K. Piff et al., “Having Less, Giving More: The Influence of Social Class on Prosocial Behavior,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
99, no. 5 (November 2010): 771–84;M. W. Kraus, S. Côté, and D. Keltner, “Social Class, Contextualism, and Empathic Accuracy,”
Psychological Science
21, no. 11 (November 2010): 1716–23.

CHAPTER 3: BIG MAMA

1. D. K. Ginther et al., “Race, Ethnicity, and NIH Research Awards,”
Science
333 (2011): 1015–9.

2. C. M. Mueller and C. S. Dweck, “Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine Children’s Motivation and Performance,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
75, no. 1 (July 1998): 33–52.

CHAPTER 4: SEX EDUCATION

1. R. A. Wise, “The Neurobiology of Craving: Implications for the Understanding and Treatment of Addiction,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
97 (1988): 118–32; G. F. Koob, “Drugs of Abuse: Anatomy, Pharmacology and Function of Reward Pathways,”
Trends Pharmacological Sciences
13 (1992): 177–84.

2. J. Olds and P. Milner, “Positive Reinforcement Produced by Electrical Stimulation of the Septal Area and Other Regions of Rat Brain,”
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology
46 (1954): 419–27.

3. C. Hart and C. Ksir, “Nicotine Effects on Dopamine Clearance in Rat Nucleus Accumbens,”
Journal of Neurochemistry
66 (1996): 216–21; C. Ksir et al., “Nicotine Enhances Dopamine Clearance in Rat Nucleus Accumbens,”
Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry
19 (1995): 151–56.

4. W. A. Cass et al., “Differences in Dopamine Clearance and Diffusion in Rat Striatum and Nucleus Accumbens Following Systemic Cocaine Administration,”
Journal of Neurochemistry
59 (1992): 259–66.

5. J. Zhu et al., “Nicotine Increases Dopamine Clearance in Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Rats Raised in an Enriched Environment,”
Journal of Neurochemistry
103 (2007): 2575–88; J. Zhu, M. T. Bardo, and L. P. Dwoskin, “Distinct Effects of Enriched Environment on Dopamine Clearance in Nucleus Accumbens Shell and Core Following Systemic Nicotine Administration,”
Synapse
67 (2013): 57–67.

6. G. F. Koob, “Drugs of Abuse: Anatomy, Pharmacology and Function of Reward Pathways.”

7. L. Hechtman and B. Greenfield, “Long-Term Use of Stimulants in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Safety, Efficacy, and Long-Term Outcome,”
Paediatric Drugs
5, no. 12 (2003): 787–94.

CHAPTER 5: RAP AND REWARDS

1. H. R. White and M. E. Bates, “Cessation from Cocaine Use,”
Addiction
90, no. 7 (July 1995): 947–57.

2. A. J. Heinz et al., “Marriage and Relationship Closeness as Predictors of Cocaine and Heroin Use,”
Addictive Behaviors
34, no. 3 (March 2009): 258–63.

3. M. D. Resnick et al., “Protecting Adolescents from Harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
278, no. 10 (1997): 823–32.

4. B. K. Alexander, R. B. Coambs, and P. F. Hadaway, “The Effect of Housing and Gender on Morphine Self-Administration in Rats,”
Psychopharmacology
58 (1978): 175–79; P. F. Hadaway et al., “The Effect of Housing and Gender on Preference for Morphine-Sucrose Solutions in Rats,”
Psychopharmacology
66 (1979): 87–91.

5. C. Chauvet et al., “Effects of Environmental Enrichment on the Incubation of Cocaine Craving,”
Neuropharmacology
63 (2012): 635–41; M. D. Puhl et al., “Environmental Enrichment Protects Against the Acquisition of Cocaine Self-Administration in Adult Male Rats, but Does Not Eliminate Avoidance of a Drug-Associated Saccharin Cue,”
Behavioural Pharmacology
23 (2012): 43–53; D. J. Stairs, E. D. Klein, and M. T. Bardo, “Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Extinction and Reinstatement of Amphetamine Self-Administration and Sucrose-Maintained Responding,”
Behavioural Pharmacology
17 (2006): 597–604.

6. M. E. Carroll, S. T. Lac, and S. L. Nygaard, “A Concurrently Available Nondrug Reinforcer Prevents the Acquisition or Decreases the Maintenance of Cocaine-Reinforced Behavior,”
Psychopharmacology
(Berlin) 97, no. 1 (1989): 23–29.

7. M. Lenoir et al., “Intense Sweetness Surpasses Cocaine Reward,”
PLoS One
2, no. 8 (August 2007): e698.

8. M. A. Nader and W. L. Woolverton, “Effects of Increasing the Magnitude of an Alternative Reinforcer on Drug Choice in a Discrete-Trials Choice Procedure,”
Psychopharmacology
(Berlin) 105, no. 2 (1991): 169–74.

9. S. T. Higgins, W. K. Bickel, and J. R. Hughes, “Influence of an Alternative Reinforcer on Human Cocaine Self-Administration,”
Life Sciences
55, no. 3 (1994): 179–87.

CHAPTER 6: DRUGS AND GUNS

1. National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2010, http://www.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2k10Results/Web/HTML/2k10Results.htm#7.1.5.

2. Christopher J. Mumola and Jennifer C. Karberg, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004.

3. Ibid.

4. P. J. Goldstein, H. H. Brownstein, P. J. Ryan, and P. A. Bellucci, “Crack and Homicide in New York City: A Case Study in the Epidemiology of Violence,” in Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine, eds.,
Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 113–30.

5. S. R. Dube et al., “Childhood Abuse, Neglect, and Household Dysfunction and the Risk of Illicit Drug Use: The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study,”
Pediatrics
111, no. 3 (March 2003): 564–72, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/111/3/564.long.

CHAPTER 7: CHOICES AND CHANCES

1. Anna Aizer and Joseph J. Doyle Jr., “Juvenile Incarceration and Adult Outcomes: Evidence from Randomly-Assigned Judges,” National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2011.