George F. Kennan: An American Life (129 page)

24
PPS/8, “United States Policy in the Event of the Establishment of Communist Power in Greece,” September 18, 1947, in
PPS Papers,
I, 91–101; PPS/9, “Possible Action by the U.S. to Assist the Italian Government in the Event of Communist Seizure of North Italy and the Establishment of an Italian Communist ‘Government’ in that Area,”
ibid.,
pp. 1027. For “counter-pressures,” see GFK’s October 6, 1947, National War College lecture, in Harlow and Maerz,
Measures Short of War,
p. 258.

25
GFK to Lovett, August 19, 1947, and Forrestal, September 29, 1947, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological—1947.”

26
Truman statement, December 13, 1947,
Public Papers of the Presidents: Truman 1947
, document 234. NSC 1/1 is in
FRUS: 1948,
III, 724–27. For more on this episode, see Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 84–87
.

27
State Department memorandum, “Coordination of Foreign Information Measures (NSC 4) Psychological Operations (NSC 4-A),” and NSC 4-A, “Psychological Operations,” both dated December 17, 1947, in
FRUS: Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment
, pp. 646–51. Truman’s approval is noted on p. 650n. For more on the background of these documents, see the editorial introduction on pp. 615–17; see also the CIA’s internal history, completed in 1953 but not declassified until 1989: Darling,
Central Intelligence Agency
, pp. 256–62.

28
Henderson memorandum, “Willingness of United States Government in Certain Circumstances to Dispatch United States Forces to Greece,” December 22, 1947, in
FRUS: 1947
, V, 458–61; Memorandum of State Department meeting, December 26, 1947,
ibid.,
pp. 468–69; GFK memorandum, NSC meeting, January 13, 1948, in
FRUS: 1948
, IV, 27. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 87–93.

29
PPS/19, “Position of the United States with Respect to Palestine,” January 20, 1948, in
PPS Papers
, II, 39–41; GFK Diary, January 28, 1948.

30
PPS/21, “The Problem of Palestine,” February 11, 1948, in
PPS Papers
, II, 80–87. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 93–99.

31
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 368.

32
See, on these anxieties, Mackinder, “Geographical Pivot of History”; Spykman,
America’s Strategy in World Politics
, pp. 194–99; and Earle,
Makers of Modern Strategy
, pp. 148, 390–91, 404–5, 444–45, 452, 515, which GFK was reading in the summer of 1946.

33
Joint Chiefs of Staff to the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, June 9, 1947, in
FRUS: 1947
, VII, 838–48; GFK to Walton Butterworth, October 29, 1947, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological—1947” folder. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 218–20. GFK’s National War College comments, delivered on May 6, 1947, are in Harlow and Maerz,
Measures Short of War,
pp. 198–99.

34
“The Situation in China and U.S. Policy,” November 3, 1947, PPS Records, Box 13, “China 1947–8” folder.

35
Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 220–23.

36
Notes, Secretary of the Navy’s Council Meeting, January 14, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:3.

37
PPS/23, “Review of Current Trends: U.S. Foreign Policy,” February 24, 1948, in
FRUS: 1948
, I, 523–29.

38
Morgenthau,
Politics Among Nations.
Joel D. Rosenthal tracks the parallels between GFK and Morgenthau in
Righteous Realists
.

39
PPS/15, “Report on Activities of the Policy Planning Staff (May to November 1947),” November 13, 1947, in
PPS Papers
, I, 146.

40
Travis,
Kennan and the Russian-American Relationship
, pp. 292–93; GFK interview, September 4, 1984, p. 18; Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
p. 251; GFK Diary, January 30, 1948; GFK to MacMurray, September 19, 1950,
ibid.,
139:8. GFK discussed MacMurray’s warning in his first book,
American Diplomacy
, p. 48.

41
The best treatment of MacArthur’s policies in Japan and of his political aspirations is James,
Years of MacArthur
, III, 1–217. The reference to Caesar is in GFK’s report on his first conversation with MacArthur on March 1, 1948, in PPS/28/2, “Memoranda of Conversations with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur,” in
PPS Papers: 1948
, II, 184.

42
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 376.

43
GFK interview by Pogue; Green interview by Kennedy; GFK memorandum of conversation with MacArthur, March 5, 1948, in PPS/28/2, in
PPS Papers,
II, 186. See also GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 382–84; and Hessman interview by Wright, p. 20.

44
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 384–85; Green interview by Kennedy.

45
James,
Years of MacArthur
, I, 63–66. Kennan family legend has it that one of MacArthur’s teachers was Miss Emily Strong, who also taught Jeanette and George, but I have not been able to confirm this independently. JKH interview by JEK, November 2, 1972, p. 35; GFK interview, December 13, 1987, p. 2.

46
GFK memorandum of conversation with MacArthur, March 5, 1948, in PPS/28/2, in
PPS Papers,
II, 187–96; Green interview by Kennedy. See also GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 370, 386; and Schaller,
MacArthur
, pp. 150–51.

47
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 386; Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 264–68.

48
James,
Years of MacArthur,
III, 233. See also Schaller,
MacArthur,
pp. 150–51.

49
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 393; GFK interview, September 4, 1984, p. 18.

50
GFK presentation to the Senate Armed Services Committee, “Preparedness as Part of Foreign Relations,” January 8, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:1. Soviet sources confirm GFK’s argument about the defensive objectives of the Czech coup. See Pechatnov and Edmondson, “The Russian Perspective,” in Levering et al.,
Debating the Origins of the Cold War,
pp. 134–35.

51
GFK to Marshall, January 6 and February 3, 1948, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological January–May 1948” folder. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 116–20.

52
PPS/27, “Western Union and Related Problems,” March 23, 1948, in
PPS Papers,
II, 162; GFK to Louis Halle, April 20, 1966, GFK Papers, 59:1–4. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 113–23.

53
Ibid.,
pp. 103–4. For Clay’s message, see Smith,
Lucius D. Clay
, pp. 466–67.

54
GFK to Marshall and Lovett, March 15, 1948, in
FRUS: 1948
, III, 848–49.

55
Hickerson annotation,
ibid.,
p. 849n; Hickerson interview, November 15, 1983, p. 8.

56
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 403. For GFK’s moderate use of alcohol, see Black interview, November 24, 1987, p. 10.

57
James,
Years of MacArthur,
III, 221–26, discusses the other pressures converging on MacArthur at the time.

58
ASK to Frieda Por, March 8, 1948, JEK Papers. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
p. 264; Hessman interview by Wright, p. 21; and GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 404.

59
Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 124–27. For Truman speech, see
Public Papers of the Presidents: Truman 1948
, Document 52.

60
Truman Diary, March 20, 1948, in Ferrell,
Off the Record
, p. 127; Marshall memorandum of conversation with Truman, May 12, 1948, in
FRUS: 1948
, V, 975. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 99–102; and Clifford and Holbrooke,
Counsel to the President
, pp. 3–25.

61
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 403–4.

1
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 360–61.

2
GFK to Lippmann, April 6, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:7.

3
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 361–63; GFK interview, September 7, 1983, p. 19.

4
PPS/23, “Review of Current Trends: U.S. Foreign Policy,” February 24, 1948, in
FRUS: 1948
, I, 522–23.

5
E. Herbert Norman to Department of External Affairs, March 6, 1948, Pearson to Norman, March 11, 1948, Norman Robertson to Escott Reid, April 1, 1948, and May 11, 1948, all in Ministry of External Affairs, Record Group 25, Volume 5697, File 2AE(S), Pt. 2.1, National Archives of Canada. Hankey’s minute, dated April 30, 1948, is in the British Foreign Office Records, FO 371/71671, National Archives, London.

6
Davies to George Butler, March 19, 1948, PPS Records, Box 23, “USSR 1946–1950” folder; Bohlen to Lovett, April 22, 1948, Bohlen Papers, Box 1, “Correspondence 1946–49: H” folder, National Archives; Lovett memorandum on April 23, 1948, cabinet meeting, dated April 26, in
FRUS: 1948
, IV, 834n; Marshall to Smith, April 29, 1948,
ibid.,
pp. 840–41; Inverchapel to Foreign Office, May 5, 1948, British Foreign Office Records, FO 371/68014/AN1914. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy
pp. 186–88.

7
Bevin to Inverchapel, May 11, 1948, conveyed to Marshall on the same date, in
FRUS: 1948,
IV, 860–61n. See also Bullock,
Ernest Bevin
, p. 558.

8
GFK,
Memoirs,
I, 347; GFK to Marshall, May 12, 1948, PPS Records, Box 23, “USSR 1946–1950” folder.

9
Pechatnov and Edmondson, “The Russian Perspective,” in Levering et al.,
Debating the Origins of the Cold War,
p. 140; Durbrow to State Department, May 18, 1948, in
FRUS: 1948
, IV, 871. For more on the Wallace initiative, see White and Maze,
Henry A. Wallace
, pp. 262–64.

10
GFK to Smith, June 18, 1948, GFK Papers, 140:2. See also GFK to Lovett, June 9, 1948, PPS Records, Box 23, “USSR 1946–1950” folder; and, for the evidence on Wallace’s collusion with Moscow, Pechatnov,
Stalin, Ruzvel’t, Trumen
, pp. 527–57; and Zubok,
Failed Empire
, pp. 47, 76. Smith’s own account of this episode is in his memoir,
My Three Years in Moscow
, pp. 157–66.

11
GFK lecture, “Russia and the Community of Nations,” Canadian National Defence College, Kingston, Ont., May 31, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:9.

12
Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 106–8; Weiner,
Legacy of Ashes
, pp. 26–29. Miller,
United States and Italy
, pp. 243–49, provides a good overall account of the election campaign.

13
PPS Memorandum, “The Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare,” May 4, 1948, in
FRUS: 1945–1950: Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment
, pp. 668–72. The
FRUS
version of this document indicates that other proposed secret activities have been excised from it. The reference to the Italian elections has also been removed, but it appears in the Policy Planning Staff files and is quoted in Lucas and Mistry, “Illusions of Coherence,” p. 52.

14
GFK interview, September 7, 1983, p. 21; Davies interview, December 8, 1982, p. 11. For the Marshall Plan connection, see Pisani,
CIA and the Marshall Plan
.

15
Hillenkoetter to James S. Lay, Jr., June 9, 1948, in
FRUS: 1945–1950,
p. 703. See also the CIA’s internal history of these events, Darling,
Central Intelligence Agency
, p. 272.

16
GFK to Lovett and Marshall, June 16, 1948, in
FRUS: 1945–1950
, p. 709. NSC 10/2, “National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects,” approved by the NSC on June 17, is
ibid.,
pp. 713–15.

17
GFK to Lovett, June 30, 1948,
ibid.,
p. 716; Wisner memorandum, meeting with Hillenkoetter and GFK, August 6, 1948
, ibid.,
p. 720; GFK to Lovett, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological July–December” folder. Hersch,
Old Boys
, and Thomas,
Very Best Men
, provide the best accounts of Wisner’s life and career. For the dinners, see Weiner,
Legacy of Ashes
, pp. 20–21. Project Umpire is described in Corke,
U.S. Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy
, p. 51.

18
Lovett to Forrestal (drafted by GFK), October 1, 1948, in
FRUS: 1945–1950
, pp. 724–25; GFK to Lovett, October 29, 1948
, ibid.,
pp. 728–29; GFK to Wisner, January 6, 1949,
ibid.,
p. 734. See also Miscamble,
Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy,
pp. 109–10.

19
GFK National War College lecture, “Measures Short of War (Diplomatic),” September 16, 1946, in Harlow and Maerz,
Measures Short of War,
p. 17; D. M. Ladd to J. Edgar Hoover, April 18, 1947, FBI Records, 62-81548-4x1, GFK Papers, 181:3–6; GFK to Forrestal, September 29, 1947, PPS Records, Box 33, “Chronological 1947”; GFK Canadian National Defence College lecture, May 31, 1948, GFK Papers, 299:9. See also Chapters Seven, Eight, and Eleven, above.

20
GFK interviews, September 7, 1983, pp. 20–23, 27, and December 13, 1987, p. 21; Davies interview, December 8, 1982, p. 11; GFK to JLG, November 13, 1987, JLG Papers. See also Karalekas, “History of the Central Intelligence Agency,” pp. 31–32.