From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 (64 page)

21 CLEOPATRA, QUEEN OF KINGS. Antony issued coins which showed Cleopatra’s portrait and named her ‘Queen of Kings and of her sons who are kings’: the other side depicted Antony and the legend ‘Armenia devicta’ (Sydenham,
CRR
, n. 1210–11; Crawford,
RRC
, n. 543). Artistically these coins are poor and do not flatter the queen, but none of the other coins with her portrait (see J. M. C. Toynbee,
Roman Historical Portraits
(1978), 86 ff.) suggests that she was particularly beautiful. On Cleopatra see also H. Volkmann,
Cleopatra
(Engl. trans., 1958). Two more biographies of Cleopatra
have appeared:
Cleopatra
(1972) by M. Grant, and
Cleopatra
(1970), a somewhat more romantic account by Jack Lindsay. [p. 143]

22 THE END OF THE TRIUMVIRATE. For the view that it terminated at the end of 33 (cf. Augustus,
Res Gest.
7: ‘triumvirum rei publicae constituendae fui per continuos annos decem’) and a discussion of other views, see Rice Holmes
Architect Rom. Emp.
I, 231 ff.; for more recent views see G. E. F. Chilver,
Historia
, 1950, 410 ff. On Octavian’s status in 32 see H. W. Benario,
Chiron
, 1975, 301 ff., and on the crisis in Rome at the beginning of 32 see E. H. Gray,
Proc. Afr. Cl. Ass.
, 1975, 15 ff. [p. 143]

23 THE CONIURATIO. On its importance see R. Syme,
Rom. Rev.
, 284 ff., who also emphasizes its influence on the unification of Italy,
tota Italia
. After
tota Italia
(according to
Res Gestae
, 25, 2) ‘the Gallic and Spanish provinces, Africa, Sicily and Sardinia swore the same oath of allegiance’. After Antony’s defeat in the east, the eastern regions appear to have followed suit; later, on the accession of a new emperor, a similar oath was taken everywhere (e.g. by Cyprus to Tiberius: see ch. XIII, n. 16 below). The nature of the oath is exemplified in that taken by resident Romans and natives at Gangra in Paphlagonia in 3 B.C. soon after its incorporation in the province of Galatia: see Ehrenberg and Jones,
Documents
, 315, and for translation and discussion of this topic see P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore,
Res Gestae
(1967), 67 f. The oath was personal and extra-constitutional, and did not confer any legal power on Octavian. For fragments of an inscription containing an oath of allegiance to Augustus taken in Samos, see P. Herrmann,
Athen. Mitteil.
, 75 (1960), 71 f.

On Octavian’s followers see Syme,
op. cit.
, 292 f. and on Antony’s pp. 266 ff. On the unattached votes in the Senate in 32 see P. Wallmann,
Historia
, 1976, 305 ff. [p. 143]

24 ACTIUM. For the view that Antony intended a decisive action and was let down by misunderstanding or treachery among his men see W. W. Tarn,
JRS
, 1931, 173 ff.; 1938, 165 ff. For the ‘escape’ theory see J. Kromayer,
Hermes
, 1933, 361 ff.; G. W. Richardson,
JRS
, 1937, 153 ff. After the battle Octavian founded a ‘city of victory’, Nicopolis, nearby, where he concentrated many Acarnanians and Epirots. The services of Seleucus of Rhosus, who served as his admiral, are recorded in a letter of Octavian to Rhosus (see above, n. 11). For an edict of Octavian (probably 31 B.C.), granting privileges to veterans, see Ehrenberg and Jones,
Documents
, n. 302 and translation in Lewis and Reinhold,
Rn. Civ.
i, p. 392. On Actium see also E. Wistrand,
Horace’s Ninth Epode
(1958); M. L. Paladini,
A proposito della tradizione poetica sulla battaglia di Azio
(1958); J. M. Carter,
The Battle of Actium
(1970), [p. 145]

25 CLEOPATRA’S DEATH. On the chronology of her last days see T. C. Skeat,
JRS
, 1953, 98 ff. On W. Spiegelberg’s view that she used an asp because, as the divine minister of the Sun-god, it defied its victim, see J. G. Griffiths,
Journ. Egypt. Arch.
1961, 113 ff. B. Baldwin,
Journ. Egypt. Arch.
, 1964, 181 f., denies the view of Griffiths (
op. cit.
) that Cleopatra used two serpents (the double uraeaus). On Antony’s will see J. Crook,
JRS
, 1957, 36 ff. [p. 145]

1 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. For a detailed survey see Tenney Frank,
An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome
, vol. I (1933), chs. iv and v. See also K. D. White,
Roman Farming
(1970); H. J. Loane,
Industry and Commerce in the City of Rome, 50 BC
–
200 A.D
. (1938); A. Burford,
Craftsmen in Greek and Roman Society
(1972); L. Schatzman,
Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics
(1975), discusses the wealth of individual senators in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. In
The Ancient Economy
(1973), M. I. Finley discusses
various concepts and aspects of ancient economic life. He regards ancient economic thought and life as primitive and alien to many of the modern economic categories which are sometimes applied to it: the structure of ancient society was hostile to industry and commerce, while agriculture remained underdeveloped. For a criticism of this standpoint see M. Frederiksen,
JRS
, 1975, 164 ff. [p. 146]

2 POPULATION OF ITALY. The high figure of nearly 14 million, which included 4 million slaves, was the estimate of T. Frank (
op. cit.
p. 266). P. A. Brunt, who in
Italian Manpower, 225 BC
–
A.D
.
14
(1971) has subjected the evidence to fresh and vigorous examination, reverts to figures of the more sober order reached much earlier by K. J. Beloch: he concludes that by 28 B.C. there were some 5–6 million Roman citizens (men, women, and children over the age of one) and that not many more than 4 million were domiciled in Italy; the total population of Italy, including infants, free foreigners and slaves, was perhaps in excess of 7 million. He believes that the number of the free population in Italy had not increased in the two hundred years before Augustus. [p. 147]

3 EMIGRATION. Besides the state-organized settlement in colonies, there was a widespread and increasing private emigration from Italy during the last two centuries of the Republic, both to the Western Mediterranean and to the Greek East. This movement has been carefully studied by A. J. N. Wilson,
Emigration from Italy in the Republican Age of Rome
(1966), who examines the volume, the kinds of communities formed overseas by the emigrants, their motives and origins, the areas settled, and the relations of the settlers with the people among whom they lived. On emigration see also P. A. Brunt,
Italian Manpower
(1971), 159 ff. [p. 148]

3a URBANIZATION. On the development of the cities of Italy in the first century B.C. see E. Gabba,
Studi classici e orientali
, 1972, 73 ff. [p. 148]

4 TRADE IN THE EAST. In general see J. Hatzfeld,
Les Trafiquants italiens dans l’Orient hellénique
(1919), and for the Italians at Delos see W. A. Laidlaw,
A History of Delos
(1933), ch. vi. Also A. J. N. Wilson,
op. cit.
, 85 ff. Brunt (
Italian Manpower
, 224 ff.) believes that the figure of 80,000 Italians who were said to have been massacred by Mithridates is grossly exaggerated, and consequently the number of Italians in Asia Minor was less than is usually supposed. [p. 149]

5 WRECKED ROMAN SHIPS. For the Mahdia wreck (cf.
Rev. Arch.
, 1911) and recent discoveries see Ph. Diôle,
Four Thousand Years under the Sea
(1954), and Fr. Benoit,
Rivista di Studi Liguri
, 1952, 237 ff. [p. 149]

6 SOCIAL LIFE. See Warde Fowler,
Social Life in Rome in the Days of Cicero
(1909). On the position of woman, see J. P. Balsdon,
Roman Women
(1962). Most aspects of the social scene are discussed in Balsdon’s excellent
Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome
(1969). See also R. MacMullen,
Roman Social Relations, 50 BC
–
A.D
.
284
(1974). [p. 151]

7 EQUITES AND THE EQUESTRIAN ORDER. See above p. 8 f. and n. 9. In the early days the Equites had served as cavalry and were enrolled in the centuriate Assembly in 18
centuriae
as
Equites equo publico
. Later they became an élite corps whose exclusiveness was gradually undermined, and precise definition becomes increasingly difficult. This is particularly so in the period between Gaius Gracchus and Sulla. The class to whom the former transferred the
repetundae
court was more probably defined by a financial qualification than by equestrian status (cf. ch. II, n. 31 above); they were perhaps strictly
Gracchani iudices
rather than Equites, but the latter name is commonly (and conveniently) applied to them. After Sulla all reference to
equo publico
is irrelevant and membership of the Equestrian Order could apparently be claimed by any Roman citizen with sufficient wealth. Further, with the enfranchisement of Italy in 90 the
number of potential Knights was greatly increased. Thus in the late Republic the word Equites covered a great variety of people: an aristocratic group in Rome, leading men from colonies and municipia, the
publicani
many of whom had made great fortunes through their state contracts and tax-collecting and who mostly will have become socially respectable by their investment in land, and the
negotatores
, the private financiers and business men who had made good; nor must we forget the country squires, wealthy enough to qualify as members of the Order, who preferred a quiet life to the hurly-burly of either business or public service. Thus Equites were of many kinds, and it was primarily the
publicani
and Gracchan
iudices
(probably largely identical) who were interested in politics and who often clashed with the Senate. See M. R. Cimma,
Ricerche sulle società di publicani
(1981). [p. 151]

8 ATTICUS. The 16 books of Cicero’s Letters to Atticus reveal the character of both men. See G. Bosisier,
Cicero and his Friends
(1897), pp. 123 ff. [p. 151]

9 THE PLEBS. See Z. Yavetz, ‘Plebs sordida’,
Athenaeum
, 1965, 295 ff., ‘Levitas popularis’,
Atene e Roma
, 1965, 97 ff., ‘The Living Conditions of the Urban Plebs In Republican Rome’,
Latomus
, 1958, 500 ff. (=Sealey,
Crisis
, 162 ff.), and for the late Republic
Plebs and Princeps
(1969). P. A. Brunt, ‘The Roman Mob’,
Past & Present
, 1966, 3 ff (reprinted in
Studies in Ancient Society
, ed. M. I. Finley, 1974, 74 ff.), and also one aspect, A. W. Lintott,
Violence in Republican Rome
(1968). [p. 152]

10 RACE MIXTURE. See T. Frank,
An Economic History of Rome
²
(1927), 207 ff. for an extreme view. For a criticism of this see N. H. Baynes,
IRS
, 1943, 32 ff. See also S. Treggiari,
Roman Freedmen during the late Republic
(1969) (5 ff. and 32 ff. especially for race mixture). On the free and slave population of Italy see P. A. Brunt,
Italian Manpower
(1971), 121 ff. [p. 152]

11 FESTIVALS, GAMES AND VENATIONES. Of the old religious festivals (
feriae
) recorded in the Roman calander some had become relatively obscure but others (e.g. the Lupercalia and Saturnalia) remained great public holidays. The six older Games (Ludi Romani, Plebeii, Apollinares, Ceriales, Megalenses and Florales) continued alongside the new Circenses of Sulla and Caesar. See Warde Fowler,
The Roman Festivals
(1908); H. H. Scullard,
Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic
(1981). On the
venationes
see G. Jennison,
Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome
(1937): for the Republic, especially ch. iii. For the episode in 55 see Cicero,
ad fam.
7, 1, 3; Pliny,
NH
, 8, 7. Also J. P. V. D. Balsdon,
Life and Leisure in Ancient Rome
(1969), 306 ff. (wild beast fighting), 288 ff. (gladiators) and M. Grant,
Gladiators
(1967). On the attitude of the Romans to animals see J. M. C. Toynbee,
Animals in Roman Life and Art
(1973) and on elephants H. H. Scullard,
The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World
(1974). [p. 153]

12 THE CITY. In general see G. Lugli,
Roma antica: Il centro monumentale
(1946); T. Ashby and S. B. Platner,
Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome
(1929). See also E. Nash’s fine
Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome
, 2 vols. (1961–62) for individual buildings. See F. Coarelli, ‘Public building in Rome between the Second Punic War and Sulla’,
Papers Brit. Sch. Rome
, 1977, 1 ff. For Sulla’s work, E. B. Van Deeman,
JRS
, 1922, pp. 1 ff. See also D. R. Dudley,
Urbs Roma
(1967), a source book of classical texts on the city and its monuments, and M. Grant,
The Roman Forum
(1970). [p. 153]

13 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION. See G. H. Stevenson,
Roman Provincial Administration
(1939) and
CAH
, IX, ch. x. For a translation of some important passages see Lewis and Reihhold,
Rn. Civ.
I, ch. vi. On Roman policy towards the provinces see E. Badian,
Roman Imperialism in the late Republic
²
(1968) and
Publicans and Sinners
(1972). [p. 154]

14 CITY SELF-GOVERNMENT. On Rome’s attitude to this see A. H. M. Jones,
The Greek City
(1940), 170 ff. [p. 154]

15 CLERICAL GRADES IN THE CIVIL SERVICE. See A. H. M. Jones,
JRS
, 1949, 38 ff. [p. 156]

16 SIBYLLINE ORACLES. Cf. ch. VIII, n. 19. Part of an anti-Roman oracle, dating from the Mithridatic Wars, is translated in Lewis and Reinhold,
Rn. Civ.
I, 377 f., which also gives many passages illustrating Roman misrule (pp. 355 ff.). [p. 158]