Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (103 page)

14. Above, p. 74.

15. Mather, Magnalia, 2, p. 442.

16. Cited by Phelan, Millennial Kingdom, p. 50. See also Brading, First America, p. 348.

17. See David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment. Popular Religious Beliefs in Early New England (New York, 1989), pp. 91-3.

18. Cited by Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA, 1956), p. 119.

19. Richard Crakanthorpe (1608), cited by Avihu Zakai, Exile and Kingdom. History and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to America (Cambridge, 1992), p. 62.

20. Mather, Magnalia, 1, pp. 44 and 46.

21. Morgan, Roger Williams, pp. 99-103.

22. Mather, Magnalia, 1, p. 66.

23. Ibid., p. 50. 24. Above, p. 48.

25. Sacvan Bercovitch, `The Winthrop Variation: a Model of American Identity', Proceedings of the British Academy, 97 (1997), pp. 75-94.

26. Cited by Bercovitch, Puritan Origins of the American Self, p. 102.

27. See the introduction to Fray Diego Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, and the Ancient Calendar, trans. and ed. by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden (Norman, OK, 1971), pp. 23-5, and Lee Eldridge Huddleston, Origins of the American Indians. European Concepts, 1492-1729 (Austin, TX, and London, 1967), ch. 1.

28. Huddleston, Origins, pp. 131-2. See also the contributions to part 1 of Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (eds), The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450 to 1800 (New York and Oxford, 2001), and Richard H. Popkin, `The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Indian Theory', in Y. Kaplan, H. Mechoulan and R. H. Popkin (eds), Menasseh ben Israel and his World (Leiden, 1989), pp. 63-82. I am indebted to Professor David Katz for drawing my attention to this essay.

29. See Cogley John Eliot's Mission, chs 1 and 4.

30. Ibid., p. 92; and see above, p. 74.

31. Cited by Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 74.

32. Mather, Magnalia, 1, p. 556.

33. Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons. The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), p. 80.

34. Fernando Cervantes, The Devil in the New World. The Impact of Diabolism in New Spain (New Haven and London, 1994), pp. 14-16.

35. See Kenneth Mills, Idolatry and its Enemies. Colonial Andean Religion and Extirpation, 1640-1750 (Princeton, 1997), and Nicholas Griffiths, The Cross and the Serpent. Religious Repression and Resurgence in Colonial Peru (Norman, OK, and London, 1995).

36. Mather, Magnalia, 1, p. 55.

37. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, p. 167.

38. Ibid., p. 118.

39. Richard Godber, The Devil's Dominion. Magic and Religion in Early New England (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 5-6; Hall, Worlds of Wonder, p. 100. For magic in colonial British America as a whole, see Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, ch. 3.

40. Bernand and Gruzinski, Les Metissages, p. 301.

41. Alberto, Inquisition et societe an Mexique, pp. 93-4.

42. Irene Silverblatt, `The Inca's Witches', in Robert Blair St George (ed.), Possible Pasts. Becoming Colonial in Early America (Ithaca, NY and London, 2000), pp. 109-30; Sabine MacCormack, Religion in the Andes. Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru (Princeton, 1991), p. 415.

43. Godber, The Devil's Dominion, p. 69.

44. Ibid., pp. 73-7.

45. Cited by Demos, Entertaining Satan, p. 173, and see also Godber, The Devil's Dominion, p. 63.

46. For witchcraft in New England and the Salem trials, see especially Godber, The Devil's Dominion, Demos, Entertaining Satan, and Mary Beth Norton, In the Devil's Snare. The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (New York, 2002), which makes the frontier war with the Indians central to the story.

47. Tituba's Indian origins are discussed in Norton, In the Devil's Snare, pp. 20-1. An alternative suggestion is that she was an Arawak from the Orinoco region, and was shipped to Barbados as a child by a slave-trader. See Elaine Breslaw, Tituba, Reluctant Witch of Salem (New York and London, 1996), pp. 12-13.

48. Norton, In the Devil's Snare, pp. 3-4.

49. Demos, Entertaining Satan, p. 373.

50. Norton, In the Devil's Snare, p. 299.

51. See Fernando Cervantes, `The Devils of Queretaro: Scepticism and Credulity in Late Seventeenth-Century Mexico', Past and Present, 130 (1991), pp. 51-69, and his The Devil in the New World, for detailed discussion and analysis of this episode.

52. Cervantes, The Devil in the New World, p. 114.

53. Alberto, Inquisition et societe, pp. 253-4.

54. Cervantes, The Devil in the New World, pp. 119-20.

55. Clark, Thinking with Demons, pp. 452-4; Cervantes, The Devil in the New World, pp. 133-6.

56. Godber, The Devil's Dominion, pp. 216-22.

57. Mayer, Dos Americanos, pp. 195-212.

58. Godber, The Devil's Dominion, pp. 27-8.

59. For confession in New England, see Hall, Worlds of Wonder, pp. 172-86, 189-90.

60. Cited by Clark, Thinking with Demons, p. 346.

61. See the brilliant account of the development of this tradition and its transmission to Peru in Ramon Mujica Pinilla, Angeles apocrifos en la America virreinal (2nd edn, Lima, 1996).

62. See William A. Christian, Jr., Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton, 1981).

63. Luis Millones, Dioses familiares (Lima, 1999), pp. 23-6.

64. D. A. Brading, Mexican Phoenix. Our Lady of Guadalupe. Image and Tradition Across Five Centuries (Cambridge, 2001), p. 4.

65. Bernand and Gruzinski, Les Metissages, pp. 319-20; Brading, First America, pp. 332-3.

66. For the Virgin of Guadalupe and her cult, see Brading, Mexican Phoenix; Francisco de la Maza, El guadalupanismo (Mexico City, 1953); Jacques Lafaye, Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe. The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness, 1531-1813 (Chicago, 1976); Enrique Florescano, Memoria mexicana (2nd edn, Mexico City, 1995), pp. 392-411.

67. Brading, First America, pp. 337-40; Luis Millones, Una partecita del cielo (Lima, 1993). It is possible that Santa Rosa was in fact not a creole but of mixed blood, and that her racial origins were concealed. See the contribution by Ramon Mujica Pinilla, `Santa Rosa de Lima y la politica de la santidad americana', in the exhibition catalogue, Peru indigena y virreinal (Sociedad Estatal para la Accion Cultural Exterior, Madrid, 2004), pp. 96-101.

68. See Clara Bargellini, `El barroco en Latinoamerica', in John H. Elliott (ed.), Europa/America (El Pais, Madrid, 1992), pp. 101-3.

69. Luis Millones, Peru colonial. De Pizarro a Tupac Amaru II (Lima, 1995), p. 172.

70. James P. Walsh, `Holy Time and Sacred Space in Puritan New England', American Quarterly, 32 (1980), pp. 79-95.

71. Cotton Mather, Ratio Disciplinae Fratrum (Boston, 1726), p. 5.

72. Walsh, `Holy Time', pp. 85-8; Hall, Worlds of Wonder, pp. 166-7.

73. Mark A. Peterson, `Puritanism and Refinement in Early New England: Reflections on Communion Silver', WMQ, 3rd set., 58 (2001), pp. 307-46.

74. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, pp. 58-65.

75. Above, pp. 128-9.

76. Enrique Dussel, Les Eveques hispano-americains. Defenseurs et evangelisateurs de l'Indien, 1504-1620 (Wiesbaden, 1970), p. 29 (table IV).

77. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 216-17.

78. Israel, Race, Class and Politics, p. 48.

79. Taylor, Magistrates of the Sacred, pp. 83-8; Oscar Mazin, Entre dos majestades (Zamora, Michoacan, 1987), pp. 37-45.

80. For the intricacies of this tangled affair, see Israel, Race, Class and Politics, ch. S.

81. Gage, Travels, pp. 80-1.

82. CHLA, 1, p. 523.

83. Dussel, Les Eveques hispano-americains, p. 40.

84. Above, p. 162; and see Kathryn Burns, Colonial Habits. Convents and the Spiritual Economy of Cuzco, Peru (Durham, NC, and London, 1999).

85. CHLA, 1, p. 521; Jacobs, Los movimientos migratorios, pp. 92-5.

86. Armas Medina, Cristianizacion del Peru, pp. 362-3.

87. Gage, Travels, p. 105.

88. Ibid.,-pp. 71-2.

89. Antonine Tibesar, `The Alternative: A Study in Spanish-Creole Relations in SeventeenthCentury Peru', The Americas, 11 (1955), pp. 229-83; Lavalle, Las promesas ambiguas, pp. 157-72; Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, pp. 299-300.

90. See Cayetana Alvarez de Toledo, Politics and Reform in Spain and Viceregal Mexico. The Life and Thought of Juan de Palafox, 1600-1659 (Oxford, 2004), and Israel, Race, Class and Politics, pp. 199-247.

91. Bartolome Escandell Bonet, `La inquisition espanola en Indias y las condiciones americanas de su funcionamiento', in La Inquisition (Ministerio de Cultura, Madrid, 1982), pp. 81-92.

92. Alvarez de Toledo, Politics and Reform, pp. 257-8; Montserrat Gali Boadella (ed.), La catedral de Puebla en el arte y en la historia (Mexico City, 1999).

93. Gage, Travels, p. 71.

94. Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa, Compendio y description de las Indias Occidentales, transcribed by Charles Upson Clark (Washington, DC, 1948), p. 403.

95. See Millones, Peru colonial, ch. 16 ('La ciudad ceremonial').

96. Above, p. 129.

97. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 224.

98. Burns, Colonial Habits, p. 62.

99. The point is well made by Arnold J. Bauer, `Iglesia, economia y estado en la historia de America Latina', in Ma. del Pilar Martinez Lopez-Cano (ed.), Iglesia, estado y economia. Siglos XVI y XVII (Mexico City, 1995), pp. 30-1.

100. Ibid., p. 21.

101. Chevalier, La Formation des grands domaines, pp. 301-44.

102. Bauer, `Iglesia, economia', in Iglesia, estado, ed. Martinez Lopez-Cano, p. 18.

103. Suarez, Desafios transatlanticos, pp. 389-40. For New Spain, see John F. Schwaller, `La iglesia y el credito comercial en la Nueva Espana en el siglo XVI', in Iglesia, estado, ed. Martinez Lopez-Cano, pp. 81-93.

104. There were no monks in Spanish America, as it was the crown's policy to keep out the contemplative orders in favour of the missionary orders (Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 239).

105. For a lucid account of the system as operated by convents in Cuzco, see Burns, Colonial Habits, pp. 63-7.

106. Bauer, `Iglesia, economia', in Iglesia, estado, ed. Martinez Lopez-Cano, p. 30.

107. Paul Ganster, `Churchmen', in Heber man and Socolow, Cities and Society, p. 146.

108. Chevalier, La Formation des grands domaines, pp. 307-8.

109. Bauer, `Iglesia, economia', in Iglesia, estado, ed. Martinez Lopez-Cano, p. 22.

110. Chevalier, La Formation des grands domaines, pp. 323-7; MOrner, Political and Economic Activities of the Jesuits.

111. A university by university account in Agueda Ma. Rodriguez Cruz, La universidad en la America hispknica (Madrid, 1992).

112. Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Historia de la education en la epoca colonial. El mundo indlgena (Mexico City, 1990); Jose Maria Kobayashi, La education como conquista (empresa franciscana en Mexico) (Mexico City, 1974).

113. Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Historia de la education en la epoca colonial. La education de los criollos y la vida Urbana (Mexico City, 1990). For women's education, see her ch. 12.

114. Euan Cameron in Burke (ed.), Civil Histories, pp. 57-8. For the Jesuit colleges, see Gonzalbo Aizpuru, La education de los criollos, chs. 6-9.

115. Clive Griffin, The Crombergers of Seville. The History of a Printing and Merchant Dynasty (Oxford, 1988), pp. 82-97.

116. Francisco Morales Padron, Historia general de America (Manual de historia universal, vol. VI, Madrid, 1975), p. 664.

117. Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, p. 130.

118. Irving A. Leonard, Books of the Brave (1949; repr. Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford, 1992), pp. 79-85; Antonio Castillo Gomez (ed.), Libro y lectura en la peninsula iberica y America (Junta de Castilla y Leon, Salamanca, 2003), pp. 85-6.

119. Carlos Alberto Gonzalez Sanchez, Los mundos del libro. Medios de di fusion de la cultura occidental en las Indias de los siglos XVI y XVII (Seville, 1999), pp. 52-6; Leonard, Books of the Brave, ch. 10; Teodoro Hampe Martinez, Bibliotecas privadas en el mundo colonial (Madrid, 1996).

120. Gonzalez Sanchez, Los mundos del libro, p. 89.

121. See letters 74-6 in Sanchez Rubio and Teston Nunez, El bilo que une. I am grateful to Dr Pedro Rueda Ramirez for information and clarification on the Vatable Bible.

122. Gonzalez Sanchez, Los mundos del libro, p. 89.

123. For a succinct account of the sixteenth-century revival of Thomism, see Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought (2 vols, Cambridge, 1978), 2, ch. 5. For neo-Thomism in the Hispanic world, see Anthony Pagden, The Uncertainties of Empire (Aldershot, 1994), ch. 3 ('The Search for Order: the "School of Salamanca"') and Morse, `Toward a Theory of Spanish American Government'. I am grateful to Professor Shmuel Eisenstadt for placing at my disposal a typescript (1990) of S. N. Eisenstadt, Adam B. Seligman and Batia Siebzehner, `The Classic Tradition in the Americas. The Reception of Natural Law Theory and the Establishment of New Societies in the New World', which contains a suggestive comparison of the approaches of British and Spanish America to the natural law tradition.

124. For trends in historical writing on religion in colonial America, see the helpful survey by David Hall in Greene and Pole, Colonial British America, ch. 11, and, more recently, Charles L. Cohen, `The Post-Puritan Paradigm of Early American Religious History', WMQ, 3rd scr., 54 (1997), pp. 695-722.

125. Above, pp. 72-3.

126. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, pp. 98-116.

127. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, p. 48.

128. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, pp. 144-5.

129. Cited by Wright, First Gentlemen of Virginia, p. 96.

130. Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia, pp. 99-100.

131. Wright, First Gentlemen of Virginia, pp. 95-6 and 111-13; Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, p. 130; Richard L. Morton, Colonial Virginia (2 vols, Chapel Hill, NC, 1960), 2, pp. 767 and 782.