Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 (100 page)

2. John Robertson, `Empire and Union', in David Armitage (ed.), Theories of Empire, 1450-1800 (Aldershot, 1998), pp. 18-20.

3. David Armitage, `Literature and Empire', OHBE, 1, pp. 114-15.

4. See John H. Elliott, 'A Europe of Composite Monarchies', Past and Present, 137 (1992), pp. 48-71.

5. Andrews, The Colonial Period, 2, p. 250.

6. Ibid., 2, pp. 197 and 282.

7. Kupperman, Providence Island, p. 327.

8. OHBE, 1, pp. 22-3, 25-6, and 113. Nathaniel Crouch published in 1685, under the pseudonym `R. B.', a tract entitled The English Empire in America. The figures for publications containing the term 'British Empire' are given in John E. Crowley, 'A Visual Empire. Seeing the Atlantic World from a Global British Perspective', in Mancke and Shammas (eds), Creation of the Atlantic World, pp. 283-303. Against the 124 references to `British Empire' in titles published before 1800, he finds over 4,000 containing the words `colony' or `plantation', or their cognates.

9. John M. Headley, `The Habsburg World Empire and the Revival of Ghibellinism', in Armitage (ed.), Theories of Empire, p. 51.

10. Maria Jose Rodriguez Salgado, `Patriotismo y politica exterior en la Espana de Carlos V y Felipe IF, in Felipe Ruiz Martin (ed.), La proyeccion europea de la monarquia espanola (Madrid, 1996), p. 88.

11. Above, p. 23.

12. Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias, ed. Jose Miranda (Mexico City and Buenos Aires, 1950), p. 272; Gongora, Studies, pp. 45-6.

13. Pagden, Lords of All the World, p. 32, and n. 12 for examples, to which others could be added.

14. Elliott, A Europe of Composite Monarchies', pp. 52-3, citing Solorzano Pereira.

15. Juan de Solorzano Pereira, Obras varias posthumas (Madrid, 1776), pp. 186-7. For Solorzano and his views on Alexander VI and the papal bulls, see Muldoon, The Americas in the Spanish World Order, ch. 7.

16. Jose Manuel Perez Prendes, La monarquia indiana y el estado de derecho (Valencia, 1989), pp. 85-6.

17. Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las Indias (facsimile of 1791 edition, 3 vols, Madrid, 1998), lib. III, tit. 1, ley 1.

18. See Manuel Serrano y Sanz, Orlgenes de la domination espanola en America (Madrid, 1918).

19. For this much debated question, see R. Konetzke, `La legislacion sobre inmigracion de extranjeros en America durante el reinado de Carlos V', in Charles-Quintet son temps, pp. 93-111, and, more recently, Roma Pinya i Hems, La debatuda exclusio catalano-aragonesa de la conquesta d'America (Barcelona, 1992), for a close discussion of the relevant legislation.

20. See Alfonso Garcia-Gallo, Los origenes espanoles de las instituciones americanas (Madrid, 1987), pp. 715-41 ('El pactismo en el reino de Castilla y su proyeccion en America').

21. Luis Sanchez-Agesta, `El "poderio real absolute" en el testamento de 1554', in Carlos V.• Homenaje de la Universidad de Granada (Granada, 1958), pp. 439-60.

22. Guillermo Lehmann Villena, `Las Cortes en Indias', Anuario de Historia del Derecho Espanol, 17 (1947), pp. 655-62; Woodrow Borah, `Representative Institutions in the Spanish Empire in the Sixteenth Century', The Americas, 12 (1956), pp. 246-57.

23. Gongora, Studies, p. 79.

24. For a hostile account of Fonseca and his activities, see Manuel Gimenez Fernandez, Bartolome de Las Casas (2 vols, Seville, 1953-60). A more sympathetic treatment can be found in Thomas, Rivers of Gold.

25. Gimenez Fernandez, Las Casas, 2, p. 369.

26. Demetrio Ramos, `El problema de la fundacion del Real Consejo de las Indias y la fecha de su creation', in El Consejo de las Indias en el siglo XVI (Valladolid, 1970), p. 37, supplementing the information given in the standard work on the Council, Ernesto Schafer, El Consejo real y supremo de las Indias (2 vols, Seville, 1935-47), 1, p. 44, who considered 1524 as the date of its foundation.

27. Martinez, Hernan Cortes, chs 18-20; Rafael Varon Gabai, Francisco Pizarro and his Brothers (Norman, OK and London, 1997), pp. 47-51.

28. Bakewell, History of Latin America, pp. 113-16; Perez Prendes, La monarquia indiana, pp. 206-19; J. M. Ots Capdequi, El estado espanol en las Indias (3rd edn, Mexico City, 1957), pp. 64-5.

29. CHLA, 1, p. 293.

30. Jose Ignacio Rubio Mane, Introduction al estudio de los virreyes de la Nueva Espana, 1535-1746 (3 vols, Mexico City, 1955), 1, p. 13.

31. Recopilacion, lib. III, tit. 3, ley 1.

32. Octavio Paz, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz (3rd edn, Mexico City, 1985), pp. 195-201. A vivid contemporary account of a viceregal progress through New Spain in 1640 is to be found in Cristobal Gutierrez de Medina, Viaje del Virrey Marques de Villena, ed. Manuel Romero de Terreros (Mexico City, 1947). For comparable, if smaller-scale, ceremonies, on the arrival of a new governor of Chile, see Jaime Valenzuela Marquez, `La reception publica de una autoridad colonial: modelo peninsular, referente virreinal y reproduction periferica (Santiago de Chile, siglo XVII)', in Oscar Mazin Gomez (ed.), Mexico en el mundo hispanico (2 vols, Zamora, Michoacan, 2000), pp. 495-516.

33. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 121.

34. For royal symbolism and viceregal rituals, see Victor Minguez Cornelles, Los reyes dis- tantes. Imagenes del poder en el Mexico virreinal (Castello de la Plana, 1995); Inmaculada Rodriguez Moya, La mirada del virrey. Iconografia del poder en la Nueva Espana (Castello de la Plana, 2003); Alejandro Caneque, The King's Living Image. The Culture and Politics of Viceregal Power in Colonial Mexico (New York and London, 2004).

35. Perez Prendes, La monarquia indiana, pp. 232-7.

36. Peter Marzahl, Town in the Empire. Government, Politics and Society in Seventeenth Century Popayan (Austin, TX, 1978), pp. 123 and 165.

37. Gongora, Studies, pp. 68-9.

38. Borah, Justice by Insurance, pp. 253-5.

39. Cited by Juan Manzano, `La visita de Ovando al Real Consejo de las Indias y el codigo ovandino', in El Consejo de las Indias, p. 116. For Ovando's career see Poole, Juan de Ovando.

40. Javier Malagon and Jose M. Ots Capdequi, Solorzano y la politica indiana (2nd edn, Mexico City, 1983), ch. 1; Antonio de Leon Pinelo, El Gran Canciller de Indias, ed. Guillermo Lehmann Villena (Seville, 1953), introduction.

41. Ruggiero Romano, Conjonctures opposees. La `Crise' du XVIIe siecle en Europe et en Amerique iberique (Geneva, 1992), p. 187.

42. Above, p. 68.

43. CHLA, 1, p. 518; Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 207.

44. Bakewell, History of Latin America, p. 138; Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 217; and see below, pp. 198-9.

45. Sanchez Bella, Iglesia y estado, pp. 71-4.

46. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 223.

47. Cited in Gongora, Studies, p. 71, from Juan de Ovando's Gobernacion espiritual.

48. The Works of Francis Bacon, ed. J. Spedding (14 vols, London 1857-74), 7, pp. 130-1. Antonio de Mendoza moved in 1551 from the viceroyalty of New Spain to that of Peru, where he died in the following year. I have not found the source for Bacon's story.

49. Cortes, Letters from Mexico, p. 146 (second letter, 30 October 1520).

50. For the coincidence, see Manuel Gimenez Fernandez, Hernan Cortes y la revolution comunera en la Nueva Espana (Seville, 1948).

51. Victor Frankl, `Hernan Cortes y la tradition de las Siete Partidas', Revista de Historia de America, 53-4 (1962), pp. 9-74 (reprinted in Armitage (ed.), Theories of Empire, ch. 5).

52. Luciano Perena Vicente, La Universidad de Salamanca, forja del pensamiento politico espanol en el siglo XVI (Salamanca, 1954). For a general survey of Spanish political thinking in this period, see J. A. Fernandez-Santamaria, The State, War and Peace. Spanish Political Thought in the Renaissance, 1516-1559 (Cambridge, 1977), and for an exposition of ideas and practice in Spain's American possessions, Colin M. MacLachlan, Spain's Empire in the New World. The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1988).

53. See Gongora, Studies, pp. 68-79. Also Richard M. Morse, `Towards a Theory of Spanish American Government', Journal of the History of Ideas, 15 (1954), pp. 71-93; `The Heritage of Latin America' in Hartz, The Founding of New Societies, pp. 123-77; and his ideas as reformulated in the context of the development of western civilization, in Richard M. Morse, El espejo de Prospero. Un estudio de la dialectica del Nuevo Mundo (Mexico City, 1982), pp. 66ff.

54. For the formula as part of Basque law, Bartolome Clavero, Derecho de los reinos (Seville, 1977), pp. 125-30. See also Perez Prendes, La monarquia indiana, pp. 167-8, and Recopilacion de Indias, lib. II, tit. 1, ley 22.

55. Above, p. 4.

56. Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain, pp. 132-3.

57. For the rebellion and its justification, Guillermo Lehmann Villena, Las ideas juridicas- politicas en la rebelidn de Gonzalo Pizarro (Valladolid, 1977); Gongora, Studies, pp. 27-30 and 75. For La Gasca, Teodoro Hampe Martinez, Don Pedro de la Gasca. Su obra politica en Espana y America (Lima, 1989)

58. Andrews, Colonial Period, 1, p. 86.

59. Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company, ch. 3; and see the documents in chapter 1 of Warren M. Billings, The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century. A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1975), for the beginnings of government in Virginia.

60. Michael Kammen, Deputyes and Libertyes. The Origins of Representative Government in Colonial America (New York, 1969), p. 17.

61. Langdon, `The Franchise and Political Democracy', p. 515.

62. Ibid., p. 514.

63. Kammen, Deputyes and Libertyes, p. 54; and see the table of colonies (pp. 11-2) with the date of their first assemblies.

64. Ibid., p. 19.

65. Michael Kammen, Colonial New York. A History (New York, 1975), p. 102.

66. Robert C. Ritchie, The Duke's Province. A Study of New York Politics and Society, 1664-1691 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1977), pp. 159 and 166.

67. Jack P. Greene, Peripheries and Center. Constitutional Development in the Extended Polities of the British Empire and the United States, 1607-1788 (Athens, GA, London, 1986), pp. 23-4; John Phillip Reid, In a Defiant Stance (University Park, PA, London, 1977), p. 12.

68. Leonard Woods Labaree, Royal Government in America (New Haven, 1930), pp. 32-3.

69. For the powers of governors, see ibid., especially ch. 3.

70. Ibid., p. 102.

71. Cited by Bernard Bailyn, The Origins of American Politics (New York, 1970), p. 113. Labaree's comparison of Osborn's instructions with those of Governor Clinton in 1741 in fact shows that 67 of the original 97 articles were repeated verbatim, four showed changes in phraseology, sixteen were modified in content, ten were omitted, and twelve new paragraphs were added (Royal Government, p. 64). For British royal instructions see Leonard Woods Labaree (ed.), Royal Instructions to British Colonial Governors, 1670-1776 (New York, 1935). Instructions, both standard and secret, for the viceroys of Habsburg Spanish America may be found in Lewis Hanke (ed.), Los virreyes espanoles en America durante el gobierno de la Casa de Austria (BAE, vols 233-7, Madrid, 1967-8 for Mexico, and vols 280-5 for Peru, Madrid, 1978-80).

72. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 83.

73. Ibid., pp. 85-9.

74. Patricia U. Bonomi, The Lord Cornbury Scandal. The Politics of Reputation in British America (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1988).

75. Ibid., pp. 92-7.

76. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 43.

77. Richard R. Johnson, Adjustment to Empire. The New England Colonies 1675-1715 (Leicester, 1981), p. 332.

78. Cited in Alan Tully Forming American Politics. Ideals, Interests and Institutions in Colonial New York and Pennsylvania (Baltimore and London, 1994), p. 95.

79. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 126; Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 120-1. The three-year rule was introduced in 1629.

80. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, p. 121.

81. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 38. The Jamaican-born Moore was governor of New York 1765-9.

82. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 350; John Leddy Phelan, The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century (Madison, WI, Milwaukee, WI, London, 1967), pp. 151-3.

83. Jonathan Israel, Race, Class and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610-1670 (Oxford, 1975), ch. 5.

84. C. H. Haring, The Spanish Empire in America (New York, 1947), pp. 148-57. Haring's survey remains a useful guide to governmental organization and practice in colonial America.

85. Labaree, Royal Government, ch. 5; Jack P. Greene, Negotiated Authorities. Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History (Charlottesville, VA and London, 1994), p. 173.

86. Ismael Sanchez-Bella, La organizacion financiera de las Indias. Siglo XVI (Seville, 1968), pp. 21-3.

87. Ibid., pp. 52-3; Robert Sidney Smith, `Sales Taxes in New Spain, 1575-1770', HAHR, 28 (1948), pp. 2-37.

88. For the working of this system, see Herbert S. Klein, The American Finances of the Spanish Empire. Royal Income and Expenditures in Colonial Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, 1680-1809 (Albuquerque, NM, 1998).

89. Anthony McFarlane, The British in the Americas, 1480-1815 (London and New York, 1994), pp. 207-8.

90. Labaree, Royal Government, p. 271.

91. Jack P. Greene, The Quest for Power. The Lower Houses of Assembly in the Southern Royal Colonies, 1689-1776 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1963), p. 3.

92. Cited in David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed. Four British Folkways in America (New York and Oxford, 1989), p. 407.

93. Labaree, Royal Government, pp. 170 and 274-5; Greene, The Quest for Power, part 2.

94. Bernard Bailyn, `Politics and Social Structure in Virginia', in Stanley N. Katz and John M. Murrin (eds), Colonial America. Essays in Politics and Social Development (New York, 1983), pp. 207-30, at pp. 210-15.