Ebony and Ivy (48 page)

35
. At the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution, the New England merchant George Cabot, a Harvard benefactor, warned Alexander Hamilton that the United States economy could not survive the loss of its French West Indian markets, where “nearly one half of the whole fish is consumed.” W. E. B. DuBois,
The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America 1638–1870
(New York: Longmans, Green, 1904), 27–29; Samuel Eliot Morison,
The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1921), 11–12; John Romeyn Brodhead,
History of the State of New York
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1871), II:337; Henry W. Cunningham, “Note on William Sanford,”
Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts
(Boston: Privately published, 1905), VII:203; Eugene Aubrey Stratton,
Plymouth Colony: Its History and People, 1620–1691
(Salt Lake City, UT: Ancestry, 1986), 187–89; Greene, “Slave-holding New England and Its Awakening,” 496–97; S. D. Smith,
Slavery, Family, and Gentry Capitalism in the British Atlantic: The World of the Lascelles, 1648–1834
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), esp. 21; Cabot to Hamilton, 18 December 1791, in Henry Cabot Lodge,
Life and Letters of George Cabot
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1877), 48–51; Quincy,
History of Harvard University
, vol. II, appendices.

36
. H. P. Biggar,
The Early Trading Companies of New France
(New York: Argonaut, 1965), 66–93.

37
. Brock, ed.,
Abstract of the Proceedings of the Virginia Company of London, 1619–1624
, I:9n–10n; Fausz, “Powhatan Uprising of 1622,” esp. 278–343.

38
.
New England's First Fruits
, Parts 1–2.

39
. George F. Willison,
Saints and Strangers: Being the Lives of the Pilgrim Fathers & Their Families, with Their Friends & Foes; & an Account of Their Posthumous Wanderings in Limbo, Their Final Resurrection & Rise to Glory, & the Strange Pilgrimages of Plymouth Rock
(New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1945), 198–99; Morison,
Builders of the Bay Colony
, 13; Bradford Smith,
Bradford of Plymouth
(Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1951), 166–67; J. Franklin Jameson, ed.,
Johnson's Wonder-Working Providence, 1628–1651
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910), 33–36. The latter was originally published in England as Edward Johnson,
A History of New-England, From the English Planting in the Yeere 1628 Until the Yeere 1652
… (London: Nathaniel Brooke, 1654).

40
. Ian K. Steele,
Warpaths: Invasions of North America
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 91–93; Laurence M. Hauptman, “The Pequot War and Its Legacies,” in Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, eds.,
The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation
(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 69–80; Colin G. Calloway,
New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 92–98; John Underhill,
Newes from America; or, a New and Experimentall Discoverie of New England; Containing a True Relation of Their War-like Proceedings these Two Years Last Past, with a Figure of the Indian Fort, or Palizado
(London: J.D. for Peter Cole, 1638), 39.

41
. Samuel de Champlain used firearms during the Battle of Lake Champlain in 1609, likely the first use of such weapons in the Northeast. David E. Jones,
Native North American Armor, Shields, and Fortifications
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), 48–49; Captain John Underhill, “The Pequot War (1635),” in John Gould Curtis, ed.,
American History Told by Contemporaries: Era of Colonization, 1492–1689
(New York: Macmillan, 1917), I:439–44; Alfred A. Cave,
The Pequot War
(Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), esp. 13–48; Harold L. Peterson,
Arms and Armor in Colonial America, 1526–1783
(Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1956), 7–49, 69–82; Steele,
Warpaths
, 91–93; Margaret Connell Szasz,
Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans: Indigenous Education in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World
(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 187–89; Hauptman, “The Pequot War and Its Legacies,” 69–80; James Shepard,
Connecticut Soldiers in the Pequot War of 1637, with Proof of Service, a Brief Record for Identification, and References to Various Publications in Which Further Data May Be Found
(Meriden, CT: Journal
Publishing, 1913); Calloway,
New Worlds for All
, 92–98; Carl Parcher Russell,
Guns on the Early Frontiers: A History of Firearms from Colonial Times Through the Years of the Western Fur Trade
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957); Otis Tufton Mason,
North American Bows, Arrows, and Quivers
, Smithsonian Report for 1893 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894). On the impact of guns on military institutions and social life in West Africa, see John K. Thornton,
Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800
(London: University College London Press, 1999).

42
. Morison,
Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century
, I:31–34; Margaret Ellen Newell, “The Changing Nature of Indian Slavery in New England, 1670–1720,” in Colin G. Calloway and Neal Salisbury, eds.,
Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience
(Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2003), 107–9.

43
. Salisbury, “Red Puritans,” 29–36; Elise M. Brenner, “To Pray or Be Prey: That Is the Question: Strategies for Cultural Autonomy of Massachusetts Praying Towns,”
Ethnohistory
, Spring 1980, 137–48.

44
. John Winthrop to Robert Boyle, ca. 1662, and John Winthrop to Robert Boyle, 15 October 1674, in Hunter et al., eds.,
Correspondence of Robert Boyle
, II:57–58, IV:393–94; Kellaway,
New England Company
, 173–74.

45
. For a comprehensive account of the war, see Lepore,
Name of War
; John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” (1675), in Charles Henry Lincoln, ed.,
Narratives of the Indian Wars, 1675–1699
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913), 7–12; Morison,
Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century
, I:349, II:422n; David Pulsifer, ed.,
Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England: Deeds, &c., 1620–1651
(Boston: William White, 1861), I:237.

46
. In his history of the conflict, Cotton Mather praised an enslaved African for alerting the English of the Wampanoag plot. After the Wampanoag killed Thomas Willett, they captured his servant. Knowing Algonquian, the black man discovered their military plans. In July 1674 he escaped and alerted the English that the Indians were preparing to attack Taunton. “There was a special providence in that Negroes escape,” Rev. Mather wrote, without reflecting upon the moral tension created by a captive slave escaping his captors to rescue his enslavers. Of course, such providence by definition favored the English, not Africans. Lepore,
Name of War
, 23–26; Drake, ed.,
History of King Philip's War
, 177–78; Thomas Church,
The Entertaining History of King Philip's War, Which Began in the Month of June, 1675. As Also of Expeditions More Lately Made Against the Common Enemy, and Indian Rebels, in the Eastern Parts of New-England: With Some Account of the Divine Providence Towards Col. Benjamin Church
(Boston, 1716); “The Book of Indian Records for Their Lands,” in Pulsifer, ed.,
Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England
, I:237; Easton,
“Relacion of the Indyan Warre,” 7–17; Samuel G. Drake,
The Book of the Indians of North America: Comprising Details in the Lives of About Five Hundred Chiefs and Others, the Most Distinguished among Them. Also, a History of Their Wars; their Manners and Customs; Speeches of Orators, &c., From Their First Being Known to Europeans to the Present Time. Exhibiting Also an Analysis of the Most Distinguished Authors Who Have Written upon the Great Question of the Peopling of America
(Boston: Josiah Drake, 1835), III:9–12; James P. Ronda and Jeanne Ronda, “The Death of John Sassamon: An Exploration in Writing New England Indian History,”
American Indian Quarterly
, Summer 1974, 91–102; Jenny Hale Pulsipher,
Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 95–100; William Apess,
Eulogy on King Philip, as Pronounced at the Odeon, in Federal Street, Boston, by the Rev. William Apes, an Indian
(Boston: By the author, 1836); see the account book and notes, “Thomas Chesholme, His Booke, June 5 1655,”
Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts
(Boston: By the Society, 1935), XXXI:150n; Morison,
Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century
, I:352–54; minutes of the New England Company, 5 February 1659–19 March 1659, in
The New England Company of 1649 and John Eliot: The Publications of the Prince Society
(Boston: For the Society, 1920), 51–54.

47
. Calloway,
New Worlds for All
, 96–97; Charles I,
By the King: A Proclamation Forbidding the Disorderly Trading with the Salvages in New England in America, Especially the Furnishing of the Natives in Those and Other Parts of America by the English with Weapons, and Habiliments of War
(London: Robert Barker, 1630); David Pulsifer, ed.,
Records of the Colony of New Plymouth in New England: Laws, 1623–1682
(Boston: William White, 1861); Franklin Bowditch Dexter, ed.,
Ancient Town Records: New Haven Town Records, 1649–1662
(New Haven: For the Society, 1917), I:174–75; “Ordinance of the Directors of New Netherland, Prohibiting the Sale of Firearms, etc., to Indians, and Requiring Vessels Sailing to or from Fort Orange, the South River, or Fort Hope, to Take Out Clearances,” passed 31 March 1639, in E. B. O'Callaghan, comp.,
Laws and Ordinances of New Netherland, 1638–1674. Compiled and Translated from the Original Dutch Records in the Office of the Secretary of State, Albany, N.Y
. (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1868), 18–19; Russell,
Guns on the Early Frontiers
, 10–12; Don Higginbotham, “The Military Institutions of Colonial America: The Rhetoric and the Reality,” in John A. Lynn, ed.,
Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445–1871
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 136; Patrick M. Malone, “Changing Military Technology Among the Indians of Southern New England, 1600–1677,”
American Quarterly
, March 1973, 50–63.

48
. Morison,
Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century
, II:420–23. Also see Urian Oakes, “Salutatory Oration: Commencement 1677,”
Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts
, XXXI:405–36.

49
. Several veterans of the Pequot Massacre participated in King Philip's War. Carole Doreski, ed.,
Massachusetts Officers and Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Conflicts
(Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 1982), 241;
Sibley's Harvard Graduates
, I:1, 194–208, II:13–36, 489–98; John Mason to Capt. Allyn, 27 April 1676, Wyllys Papers, 1633–1829, I:58B, Connecticut Historical Society; Eric B. Schultz and Michael J. Tougias,
King Philip's War: The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict
(Woodstock, VT: Countryman, 1999), 210–18; William Bradford,
A Letter from Major William Bradford to the Reverend John Cotton, Written at Mount Hope on July 21, 1675
… (Providence: Society of Colonial Wars in the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1914); George Madison Bodge,
Soldiers in King Philip's War: Being a Critical Account of That War with a Concise History of the Indian Wars of New England from 1620–1677
… (Boston: For the author, 1906), 119–26, 218–31, 261–65.

50
.
Sibley's Harvard Graduates
, I:318–19, 395, II:138–39, 193–95, 522–23; Bodge,
Soldiers in King Philip's War
, esp. 325–41; Mary White Rowlandson,
The Sovereignty and Goodness of God, together, with the Faithfulness of His Promises Displayed: Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson: Commended by Her, to all that Desires to Know the Lords Doings to, and Dealings with Her. Especially to Her Dear Children and Relations/ Written by Her Own Hand for Her Private Use, and Now Made Public at the Earnest Desire of Some Friends, and for the Benefits of the Afflicted
(Cambridge: Samuel Green, 1682); June Namias,
White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 7–29; Alden T. Vaughan and Edward W. Clark, eds.,
Puritans Among the Indians: Accounts of Captivity and Redemption, 1676–1724
(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1981), 1–28.

51
. In the aftermath of that deadly conflict, the praying towns declined in number. The English even neglected the Natick mission. In the next century, Cotton Mather visited the village “that we may Inspect the Condition of the Christian Indians there, and Revive Religion, and Good Order among them, which have been under a grievous Decay.” Douglas William Leach,
A Rhode Islander Reports on King Philip's War: The Second William Harris Letter of August, 1676
(Providence: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1963), esp. 82–86; Richard Slotkin and James K. Folsom, eds.,
So Dreadful a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip's War, 1676–1677
(Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1978), 370–76;
Plymouth Church Records, 1620–1859
(Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1975), I:152–53; Church,
Entertaining History of King Philip's War
, esp. 190–94; Lyle Koehler,
A Search for Power: The “Weaker Sex” in
Seventeenth Century New England
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980), 112; Colin Calloway, ed.,
After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England
(Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997), 1–3; Kristina Bross,
Dry Bones and Indian Sermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 186;
Report of a French Protestant Refugee, in Boston, 1687
, 40; William R. Manierre, ed.,
The Diary of Cotton Mather D.D., F.R.S. for the Year 1712
(Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1964), 53; Mandell, “‘To Live More Like My Christian English Neighbors,'” 552–53; Increase Mather,
A Relation of the Troubles Which Have Happened in New-England, by Reason of the Indians There: From the Year 1614 to the Year 1675. Wherein the Frequent Conspiracies of the Indians to Cut Off the English, and the Wonderfull Providence of God, in Disappointing Their Devices, is Declared
(Boston: John Foster, 1677); Samuel A. Green, ed.,
Diary of Increase Mather, March, 1675–December, 1676, Together with Extracts from Another Diary by Him, 1674–1687
(Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1900), 50–52.