A Quiet Revolution (51 page)

Chapter
1
. Unveiling

1. This quotation and those in the following two paragraphs are from Albert Hourani, “The Vanishing Veil a Challenge to the Old Order,”
   UNESCO Courier,
   Janu- ary
   1956
   ,
   35
   –
   37
   .
   

2. This quotation and those from Amin’s work in the following two paragraphs are
   

   cited in Leila Ahmed,
   Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate
   

   (New Haven: Yale University Press,
   1992
   ),
   155
   –
   56
   ,
   160
   –
   61
   .
   

3. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in
   Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture,
   ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
   1988
   ),
   296
   .
   

4. See Joseph A. Massad,
   Desiring Arabs
   (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
   ‌
   

   2007
   ),
   56
   .
   

5. Roger Owen cites General Sir Francis Grenfell as observing that Nazli was a “champion of female emancipation.” Owen,
   Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwar- dian Proconsul
   (New York: Oxford University Press,
   2004
   ),
   254
   .
   

6. Margot Badran,
   Feminists, Islam, and Nation
   (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni-
   

   versity Press,
   1995
   ),
   7
   ,
   18
   .
   

7. Owen,
   Lord Cromer,
   254
   .
   

8. Nancy Micklewright, “Women’s Dress in Nineteenth-Century Istanbul: Mirror of a Changing Society (Ottoman Costume, Westernization, Turkey),” Ph.D. diss., Uni- versity of Pennsylvania,
   1986
   .
   

9. Cited in Ahmed,
   Women and Gender,
   42
   .
   

10. Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot,
    A Short History of Modern Egypt
    (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
    1985
    ),
    75
    .
    

11. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    243
    –
    46
    .
    

12. Evelyn Baring, Earl of Cromer,
    Modern Egypt
    (London: Macmillan,
    1908
    ),
    2
    :
    539
    –
    40
    .
    

13. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    540
    .
    

14. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    315
    .
    

15. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    328
    –
    52
    . See also Jamal Mohammed Ahmed,
    The Intellec- tual Origins of Egyptian Nationalism
    (London: Oxford University Press,
    1960
    ),
    63
    ; and Salama Musa,
    The Education of Salama Musa,
    trans. L. O. Schuman (Leiden: Brill,
    1961
    ),
    32
    .
    

16. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    144
    –
    48
    . Owen notes in
    Lord Cromer
    that Lord Northbrook was Cromer’s cousin (
    66
    ).
    

17. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    355
    . In this era, which had witnessed the rapid expansion of Europe’s empires into the non-European world, ideas and beliefs about Europe’s in- herent racial and civilizational superiority, Owen suggests, were now politically useful. Such views enabled the European powers to justify the “despotic form of rule” that they exercised in their foreign territories and to represent it as a civilizing “mission” and as the “white man’s burden.”
    

18. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    362
    .
    

19. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    155
    –
    57
    .
    

20. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    374
    –
    75
    .
    

21. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    156
    ,
    539
    .
    

22. Owen,
    Lord Cromer,
    359
    .
    

23. Ahmed,
    Women and Gender,
    153
    .
    

24. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    180
    –
    81
    note
    1
    .
    

25. Oliver Scharbrodt,
    Islam and the Bahai Faith: A Comparative Study of Muham- mad ‘Abduh and ‘Abdul-Baha ‘Abbas
    (London: Routledge,
    2008
    ),
    133
    .
    

26. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    179
    –
    80
    .
    

27. Cromer,
    Modern Egypt,
    2
    ,
    180
    ,
    180
    –
    81
    note
    1
    . Of course the accuracy of Cromer’s views regarding Abduh, as well as Cromer’s motivation in writing this passage, probably should not be taken entirely at face value.
    

28. See, for instance, Scharbrodt,
    Islam and the Bahai Faith,
    and Nikki Keddie,
    Sayyid Jamal ad-din al-Afghani: A Political Biography
    (Berkeley: University of California Press,
    1972
    ).
    ‌
    ‌
    

29. Ahmed,
    Women and Gender,
    159
    .
    

30. Ahmed,
    Women and Gender,
    162
    –
    63
    ; Owen,
    Cromer,
    251
    .
    

31. Ahmed,
    Women and Gender,
    chapters
    8
    and
    9
    ; Beth Baron,
    Egypt as a Woman: Nationalism, Gender, and Politics
    (Berkeley: University of California Press,
    2005
    ),
    33
    .
    

32. Badran,
    Feminism, Islam, and Nation,
    33
    ; Roxanne L. Euben and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds.,
    Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al- Banna to Bin Laden (
    Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
    2009
    ),
    276
    .
    

33. Beth Baron mentions that Amin, in his book
    al-Mar’a al-Jadida
    (The New
    

    Woman), notes that Jewish and Christian women had unveiled. Baron, “Unveiling in Early Twentieth Century Egypt: Practical and Symbolic Considerations,”
    Middle Eastern Studies
    25
    , no.
    3
    (July
    1989
    ):
    370
    –
    86
    ;
    379
    .
    

34. Musa,
    Education of Salama Musa,
    15
    .
    

35. Quotations in this and the following three paragraphs are from Baron, “Un- veiling,”
    374
    –
    81
    .
    

36. Baron, “Unveiling,”
    381
    , and Baron,
    Egypt as a Woman,
    67
    –
    68
    .
    

37. Badran,
    Feminists, Islam, and Nation,
    42
    .
    

38. Quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Badran,
    Feminists, Islam, and Nation,
    43
    –
    44
    . Nabawiya Musa described in some detail Dunlop’s attempt to prevent her from sitting for this exam in a journal article she wrote, cited by Badran in her detailed account of Musa’s life in
    Feminism, Islam, and Nation.
    The story of Musa’s encounter with Dunlop appears to have been familiar to contemporaries: Salama Musa, for example (no relation to Nabawiya), refers to it:
    Education of Salama Musa,
    50
    . See also Muhammad Abu al-Is‘ad,
    Nabawiya Musa wa-Dawruha fi al-Hayah al-Misriya (
    1886
    –
    1951
    )
    (Cairo: Al-Hay’ah al-Misriyah al-‘Ammah lil-Kitab,
    1994
    ).
    

39. Anwar al-Jindi
    , Adab al-Mar’ah al-‘Arabiyah. Al-Qissa al-‘Arabiyah al-
    

    Mu‘asirah, Abidin,
    3
    vols. (Cairo: Matba‘at al-Risalah, n.d.),
    1
    :
    71
    .
    

40. Baron, “Unveiling,”
    380
    –
    81
    .
    

41. Baron,
    Egypt as a Woman,
    33
    –
    35
    .
    

42. Quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Baron, “Unveiling,”
    

    380
    –
    81
    .
    

43. Quotations in this and the following two paragraphs are from al-Sayyid Mar- sot,
    Short History,
    80
    –
    81
    .
    

44. Hourani, “Vanishing Veil,”
    36
    .
    

45. Cited in Ahmed,
    Women and Gender,
    164
    .
    

Chapter
2
. The Veil’s Vanishing Past

1. Brynjar Lia,
   The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement,
   1928
   –
   42
   (Reading: Garner,
   1998
   ),
   74
   .
   

2. Lia,
   Society of the Muslim Brothers,
   67
   .
   

3. Richard P. Mitchell,
   The Society of the Muslim Brothers
   (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press,
   1993
   ; originally published
   1969
   ),
   7
   .
   ‌
   

4. Mitchell,
   Society,
   8
   .
   

5. Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr.,
   A Brief History of Egypt
   (New York: Checkmark,
   2007
   ),
   

   136
   .
   

6. Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot,
   A Short History of Modern Egypt
   (Cambridge: Cam-
   

   bridge University Press,
   1985
   ),
   101
   –
   2
   .
   

7. Quotations in this and the following paragraph are from Lia,
   Society,
   79
   –
   80
   .
   

8. Lia noted that “these extremists were, however, expelled from the Society ... and this expulsion firmly established the principle that the society’s message should be spread by persuasion, not force” (
   Society,
   85
   ).
   

9. The material in this and in the following four paragraphs is from Lia,
   Society,
   

   69
   ,
   83
   –
   86
   .
   

10. Lia,
    Society,
    cites Mitchell’s view that their attitudes nurtured self-righteousness and arrogance (
    85
    ).
    

11. Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    100
    .
    

12. Goldschmidt,
    Brief History,
    134
    –
    36
    ; Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    102
    .
    

13. Mitchell,
    Society,
    63
    –
    67
    .
    

14. Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    103
    ; Goldschmidt,
    Brief History,
    138
    –
    39
    .
    

15. Goldschmidt,
    Brief History,
    144
    ; Derek Hopwood,
    Egypt Politics and Society,
    

    1945
    –
    90
    (London: Routledge,
    1991
    ),
    36
    .
    

16. Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    109
    .
    

17. Roxanne L. Euben and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds.,
    Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al-Banna to Bin Laden
    (Princeton, N.J.: Prince- ton University Press,
    2009
    ),
    275
    .
    

18. Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    112
    –
    16
    .
    

19. See Hopwood,
    Egypt Politics and Society,
    95
    –
    97
    ; and Ann Alexander,
    Nasser
    

    (London: Haus,
    2005
    ),
    93
    .
    

20. Hopwood,
    Egypt Politics and Society;
    97
    . See also Tamir Moustapha, “Conflict and Cooperation Between the State and Religious Institutions in Contemporary Egypt,”
    International Journal of Middle East Studies
    32
    (
    2000
    ):
    3
    –
    22
    . See also Malika Zeghal, “Re- ligion and Politics in Egypt: The Ulema of the Al-Azhar, Radical Islam and the State (
    1952
    –
    94
    ),”
    International Journal of Middle East Studies
    31
    (
    1999
    ):
    371
    –
    99
    .
    

21. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, “Arab-Israeli Wars, Nasserism, and Islamic Iden-
    

    tity,” in John L. Esposito, ed.,
    Islam and Development: Religion and Socio-Political Change
    

    (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press,
    1980
    ),
    116
    –
    19
    .
    

22. Malcolm H. Kerr,
    Arab Cold War: Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasir and His Rivals,
    1958
    –
    70
    (London: Oxford University Press,
    1971
    , issued under the auspices of the Royal Insti- tute of International Affairs).
    

23. Reinhard Schulze and Gabriele Tecchiato, “Muslim World League,” in
    The
    

    Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World,
    Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Accessed De- cember
    24
    ,
    2009
    .
    

24. Schulze and Tecchiato, “Muslim World League.”
    

25. John L. Esposito, “Contemporary Islam: Reform or Revolution?” in
    Oxford History of Islam,
    ed. John L. Esposito (New York: Oxford University Press,
    1999
    ),
    655
    . See also Gilles Kepel,
    Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam,
    trans. Anthony F. Roberts (Cam- bridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
    2000
    ),
    69
    .
    ‌
    

26. Goldschmidt, in
    Brief History,
    says that at its height, in the forties, the Muslim Brotherhood’s membership was about half a million (
    138
    ). See also Nazih N. Ayubi et al., “The Muslim Brotherhood,” in
    The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World,
    Oxford Is- lamic Studies Online. Accessed July
    4
    ,
    2010
    . The total population of Egypt in
    1947
    was es- timated at
    19
    million. Helen Chapin Metz, ed.,
    Egypt: A Country Study
    (Washington, D.C.: GPO for the Library of Congress,
    1990
    ). http://countrystudies.us/egypt/
    55
    .htm. Ac-
    

    cessed August
    6
    ,
    2010
    .
    

27. Ghada Hashem Talhami,
    The Mobilization of Muslim Women in Egypt
    

    (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,
    1996
    ),
    19
    .
    

28. Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    mentions
    12
    ,
    000
    men (
    124
    ).
    

29. Peter Bergen,
    The Osama bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of the al-Qaeda Leader
    (New York: Free Press,
    2006
    ),
    6
    .
    

30. Fadwa El Guindi, “Religious Revival and Islamic Survival in Egypt,”
    Interna- tional Insight
    1
    , no.
    2
    (May–June
    1980
    ):
    7
    .
    

31. Al-Sayyid Marsot,
    Short History,
    126
    .
    

32. Haddad, “Arab-Israeli Wars,”
    119
    .
    

33. Kepel,
    Jihad,
    63
    .
    

34. Hopwood,
    Egypt,
    97
    .