A Geography of Blood (21 page)

Indian Affairs Annual Reports, 1864–1990, Library and Archives of Canada,
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/indianaffairs/
.

McCullough, A.B. “Papers Relating to the North-West Mounted Police and Fort Walsh,” Research paper for Parks Canada, 1977.

Morris, Alexander.
The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the North-West Territories.
Toronto: Willing and Williamson, 1880.

Public Archives of Canada. Record Group 10. (Papers of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and its predecessors, accessed on microfilm at the University of Saskatchewan.)

Report of the Sitting Bull Indian Commission. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1877.

Titley, Brian.
The Frontier World of Edgar Dewdney.
Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999.

Treaty 7 Elders and Tribal Council, et al.
The True Spirit and Original Intent of Treaty 7.
London, ON: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996.

Turner, John Peter.
The North-West Mounted Police.
2 vols. Ottawa: Edmond Cloutier, 1950.

Wilson, Garrett.
Frontier Farewell: The 1870s and the End of the Old West.
Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 2007.

Yarshenko, Clayton Y. “The Real Story of the Great March West: Ground to a Halt.” Article written for Parks Canada, n.p., n.d.

CHAPTER 9: The Hunger Camp

This chapter is based, in part, on conversations with the late John Tobias.

Carter, Sarah.
Aboriginal People and Colonizers of Western Canada to 1900.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.

——— .
Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy.
Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990.

Commissioners of the Royal North-West Mounted Police.
Opening Up the West: Being the Official Reports to Parliament of the Activities of the Royal North-West Mounted Police Force From 1874–1881
. Toronto: Coles, 1973.

——— .
Settlers and Rebels: Being the Official Reports to Parliament of the Activities of the Royal North-West Mounted Police Force From 1882–1885.
Toronto: Coles, 1973.

Dawson, George M. “Big Bear's (Cree) Camp, Maple Creek, Saskatchewan. June 6, 1883.” Photograph, Public Archives of Canada PA-050746.

Dempsey, Hugh A.
Big Bear: The End of Freedom.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984.

Hogue, Michel.
Crossing the Line: The Plains Cree in the Canada–United States Borderlands, 1870–1900.
M.A. Thesis, Department of History, University of Calgary, 2002.

——— . “Disputing the Medicine Line: The Plains Crees and the Canadian-American Border, 1876–1885.”
Montana: the Magazine of Western History
52 (winter 2002): 2–17.

Indian Affairs Annual Reports, 1864–1990, Library and Archives of Canada,
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/indianaffairs/
.

Little Bear, Isabelle. “My Own Story. Isabelle Little Bear One of Last Remaining Links With Riel Rebellion.”
Bonnyville Tribune,
April 18, April 25, and May 2, 1958.

Public Archives of Canada. Record Group 10. (Papers of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and its predecessors, accessed on microfilm at the University of Saskatchewan.)

Tobias, John L. “Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Creek, 1879–1885.” Canadian Historical Review 64 (1983): 519–48.

Wilson, Garrett.
Frontier Farewell: The 1870s and the End of the Old West.
Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 2007.

CHAPTER 10: Creation Stories

This chapter is informed by conversations with Harry Francis, Dale Mosquito, Linda Oakes, then-Chief Alice Pahtayken, the members of the oral-history classes at the Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge (2010 and 2011), and, especially, Jean Francis Oakes.

Basso, Keith H.
Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.

Braroe, Niels Winther. “Kinds of Plains Cree Culture.”
Ethnology
41 (summer 2002): 263–80.

——— .
Indian and White: Self-Image and Interaction in a Canadian Plains Community.
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975.

Hardeman, Nicholas P. “Brick Stronghold of the Border: Fort Assinniboine, 1879–1911.”
Montana:
Magazine of Western History
29 (spring 1979): 54–67.

Hogue, Michel
. Crossing the Line: The Plains Cree in the Canada–United States Borderlands, 1870–1900.
M.A. Thesis, Department of History, University of Calgary, 2002.

Lee David. “Foremost Man, and His Band.”
Saskatchewan History
36 (1983): 94–101.

Lux, Maureen K.
Medicine That Walks: Disease, Medicine, and Canadian Plains Native People, 1880–1940.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.

Oakes, Jean Francis.
Stories From My Life.
Privately published, 2008.

Public Archives of Canada. Record Group 10. (Papers of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and its predecessors, accessed on microfilm at the University of Saskatchewan.)

Statement of Treaty Issues: Treaties as a Bridge to the Future.
Saskatoon: Office of the Treaty Commissioner, 1998.

Stegner, Wallace.
Wolf Willow: A History, a Story, and a Memory of the Last Plains Frontier.
1962. New York: Penguin, 2000.

Watetch, Abel, as told to Blodwen Davies.
Payepot and His People.
Regina: Saskatchewan History and Folklore Society, 1959.

W.W.F., Special Correspondent. “Indian Grievances. An Interesting Talk With One of Pie-a-Pot's Head Men.”
Daily Mail,
Toronto (April 24, 1885): 1 ff.

CHAPTER 11: Home Truth

This chapter is informed by conversations with the late Curly Bear Wagner of the Going to the Sun Institute, Narcisse Blood of Red Crow College, and Nora Hassell.

Chambers, Cynthia M., and Narcisse J. Blood. “Love Thy Neighbour: Repatriating Precarious Blackfoot Sites.”
http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/ssmc/html/lovethyneighbor_aStory.html
.

Gulliford, Andrew.
Sacred Objects and Sacred Places: Preserving Tribal Traditions.
Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000.

In the Light of Reverence,
produced by Christopher McLeod and Malinda Maynor (Sacred Land Film Project, Earth Island Institute, 2001).

Oetelaar, Gerald A., and D. Joy Oetelaar. “People, Places and Paths: The Cypress Hills and the Nitsitapii Landscape of Southern Alberta.”
Plains Archaeologist
51 (2006): 375–97.

Savage, Candace. “Eight Thousand Years Down.”
Canadian Geographic
(Nov./Dec. 2006)
http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/nd06/feature_8000.asp
.

Stonechild, Blair and Bill Waiser.
Loyal Till Death: Indians and the North-West Rebellion.
Calgary: Fifth House, 1997.

Sundstrom, Linea. “Sacred Islands: Exploration of Religion and Landscape in the Northern Great Plains.” In
Islands on the Plains: Ecological, Social, and Ritual Use of Landscapes,
edited by Marcel Kornfeld and Alan J. Osborn, pp. 258–300. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2003.

Index

Numbers refer to pages in the print edition

Aakii piskaan, 185

A-a-ni-nin, 74

Age of Mammals, 47, 48, 56, 172

Age of Reptiles, 45–46, 47

agriculture, 27, 30, 36, 51–52, 123, 130–31, 137, 138, 141, 145, 156, 157, 175.
See also
settlers and settlement stories; treaty terms

Alberta, 8, 9, 10, 11, 23, 24, 31, 51, 81, 82, 83, 74, 92, 103, 107, 125, 180, 181, 185

alcohol and alcoholism, 116, 160, 161, 177.
See also
whiskey trade

American bison.
See
buffalo

archaeology, 84, 108–10, 113.
See also
Chimney Coulee; Farwell's post; Stampede Site; tipi rings

Artemisia frigida
, 69

Aspdin, Major Thomas W., 112–13

Assiniboine nation, 7, 10, 155.
See also
Nakoda

Atsina, 74

Baker, Major Eugene M., 92

Baker Massacre, 92, 93

Battle Creek, 103, 106, 133

Battle of Bear Paw, 7, 120

Battle of the Greasy Grass, 117.
See also
Custer, General George Armstrong; Sitting Bull, Chief

Bear Paw battlefield, 7

Bearpaw Sea, 56, 57

Bear's Head, Chief, 120

Beaverlodge River, 32, 71, 153, 179, 180, 189

Bell, Keith, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6–7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 28, 31, 33, 37, 39, 40, 51, 53, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 79, 80, 81, 85, 99, 100, 101, 115, 153, 157, 158, 169, 170, 171, 175

Benton Trail, 101, 118, 124, 127

Big Bear, Chief, 131–32, 135, 136, 139–40, 146, 149, 150, 172, 173

Big Rock Candy Mountain, The,
13

Billings,
MT
, 2, 6

biodiversity, 41, 96.
See also
grassland conservation

Bison bison bison
, 41.
See also
buffalo

Blackfeet, 74, 77, 93.
See also
Piikáni; South Peigan

Blackfoot, 10, 62, 74, 75, 184, 186.
See also
Káínai; Niitsítapi; Piikáni; Siksika; Treaty 7

Blood, Narcisse, 183–86

Blood nation, 74.
See also
Káínai

blue-eyed grass, 67

blue grama grass, 69

Bow River, 94, 185

“British” Indians, 8, 138.
See also
Cree nation; Métis

brontotheres, 46, 47, 172

buffalo, viii, ix, 28, 29, 42, 48, 59, 60, 61, 64, 84, 89–90, 92, 93, 95, 96, 102, 103, 110, 111, 112, 113, 122, 123, 128, 129, 130, 136, 138, 139, 144, 148, 152, 154, 174, 175, 185: ecologically extinct, 43; ecosystem, 30, 41–42, 44, 64, 88, 96, 185; hides, 89, 95, 104, 110–11, 113, 123, 136, 148; hunting of, 80, 90, 94, 95, 96, 110, 119, 123, 130, 139, 144, 146, 154, 180; jumps, 36, 184, 185; near-extermination of, 4, 43, 60, 64, 89–91, 92, 95, 96, 102, 110–11, 112, 113, 123, 126, 129, 130, 138, 148; population, 43, 90; trails, 173; wallows, 102

Buffalo Bill Cody, 4–6, 29, 119, 170

Buffalo Bill Historical Center, 6, 170

Buffalo Bill's Wild West, 5

burrowing owls, 16, 43

Calf Creek quarry, 47

Calgary,
AB
, 2, 11, 30, 35

Canadian Pacific Railway, 88, 107, 135, 145, 173

Canis latrans
, 73.
See also
coyotes

cattle, 11, 15, 121, 140, 141, 160

Cayley,
AB
, 185

Chambery Coulee, 45, 70

Chapel Coulee, 95

Chesterton, G. K., 16

chestnut-collared longspurs, 43

Chimney Coulee, 86–96, 98, 99, 102, 105, 110, 119, 136, 176

club moss, 69

Cody, William Frederick, 4.
See also
Buffalo Bill Cody

Cody,
WY
, 3, 4, 7, 100, 170.
See also
Buffalo Bill Historical Center

Consul,
SK
, 9, 100

continental divide, 16, 57–58

cottonwoods, 7, 22, 33, 51, 159

cougar, 171

Coulée de la chapelle
, 94

Cowessess, Chief, 131, 137, 146

Cowie, Isaac, 60, 88–89, 90, 91–93, 94, 98

“cow killer,” 67

coyotes, 10, 30, 33, 37, 62, 73–74, 79, 179: sacred, 167.
See also
“Little Friend Coyote”

Crazy Horse camp, 85, 122, 176

Crazy Horse, Chief, 85, 122

Cree nation, 8, 10, 74, 84, 92, 125, 130, 131, 136, 143, 163, 165, 172, 182.
See also
Big Bear, Chief; Cowessess, Chief; Little Pine, Chief; Lucky Man, Chief; Nekaneet, Chief; Oakes, Jean Francis; Treaty 4; Treaty 6

Cretaceous, 45–46, 47, 55

Custer, General George Armstrong, 5, 85, 119.
See also
Battle of the Greasy Grass

Cuwiknak eyaku, 102, 131.
See also
Man Who Took the Coat, The

Cypress Hills, 42, 60, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 94, 95, 97, 99, 110, 111, 113, 116, 119, 122, 125, 131, 135, 136, 137, 141, 144, 146, 147, 152, 153, 155, 162, 170, 172, 174, 184, 185: as refuge, 84, 90, 102, 171; biogeography
,
10–11, 67, 84; climate, 11, 42, 138; geology
,
15, 55, 57–58, 69; names
for
,
10, 76

Cypress Hills Formation, 57, 69

Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park, 181

Cypress Hills Massacre, 101–6, 107, 108

Cypress Lake, 98, 133–34, 145, 146, 147–49, 150, 151, 154, 155, 176

Dakota nation, 74, 120

Dakota War of 1862, 120

Dawson, George M., 135

Dewdney, Edgar, 127, 128, 129, 130–32, 136, 137, 138, 142, 144, 145, 148, 149, 163, 173

dinosaurs, 44–46, 56, 135, 172

Dodge, Colonel Richard, 111

Dominion Land Survey, 124

Donne, John, 106

Doolias, Angela and George, 28, 29

dromaeosaurid, 45

drumlins, 37

Dust Bowl, 27, 59–60

Eastend Arts Council, 12, 25

East End post, 119, 122, 136, 141.
See also
Chimney Coulee; North-West Mounted Police

Eastend,
SK
, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 17, 20–23, 24, 27, 29, 33, 34, 38, 39, 43, 44, 47, 48, 50, 54, 55, 58, 59, 62, 66–67, 71, 72, 85, 100, 133, 134, 151, 158, 161, 163, 169, 170, 175.
See also
Jack's Café; T.rex Discovery Centre; Stegner House

elk, 11, 60, 61, 88, 89

Elkwater,
AB
, 181

endangered species.
See
biodiversity; buffalo; extinction; grassland conservation

erosion, 57–58

Evans, John, 104

executions, 173

extinction, 43, 45, 46, 47, 64, 96

famine, 95, 102, 123, 127, 131, 138, 147, 148–49, 174, 185: as instrument of government policy, 113, 122, 136, 140, 145–46, 148.
See also
buffalo; starvation

farming.
See
agriculture

Farwell's post, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108–10, 113

ferruginous hawk, 54

fescue grasslands, 11

Field Trip Guidebook No. 6
, 55–56, 57

fire, 123, 136

Fleming, Sergeant David, Sr., 165

Foot of the Mountain, 11

Foremost Man, 137, 153.
See
also
Nekaneet, Chief

Fort Assinniboine, 8, 139–40, 142, 154

Fort Belknap, 154

Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, 7

Fort Benton,
MT
, 101, 103, 129, 135

Fort Farwell.
See
Farwell's post

Fort Qu'Appelle, 89, 136

Fort Walsh, 17, 29, 100–101, 107, 113, 114–22, 127–28, 129–32, 133, 134, 136, 141, 142, 143–44, 145, 149, 154, 155, 176, 181

Fort Whoop-up, 103

fossils, 48–49, 50, 56.
See also
dinosaurs;
T.rex Discovery Centre

Frenchman River and Valley, 37, 40, 43, 54–55, 57, 69, 119, 122, 133, 171, 176, 185

Front Man, 153.
See also
Nekaneet, Chief

Front Wolf, 76, 77

fur trade, 60, 64, 88, 94, 103.
See also
Cowie, Isaac; Hudson's Bay Company; whiskey trade

Gap-in-the-Middle Hills, 76

genocide, 60

Geological Survey of Canada, 135

geology, 15, 37, 55–58, 69

glaciers.
See
Ice Age geology.

Grande Prairie,
AB
, 8, 97

grass fires, 123, 136

grassland birds, 43

grassland conservation, 11, 16, 41–44

grassland ecosystem, 41–42, 48.
See also
buffalo

Grasslands National Park, 16

Greasy Grass River, 5, 86

great blue herons, 159

Great Falls,
MT
, 2, 26

Great Father (U. S. government), viii, 140

Great Mother (Queen Victoria), viii, 118, 119, 120, 122, 125, 136, 140, 144, 146, 155, 174

Grinnell, George Bird, 75

grizzlies, 41, 59, 61, 88, 89, 185

Gros Ventre nation, 7

Gull Lake,
SK
, 36

half-breeds, 74, 121, 143.
See also
Métis

half-breed scrip, 143

Hand Hills, 51

Hanna,
AB
, 51

Hardwick, Thomas, 104

Hassell, Nora, 178–79, 180

Havre,
MT
, 8.
See also
Fort Assinniboine

Head of the Mountain, 10, 119, 181

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, 184

healing, definition, 161

hide hunters, 110–11

History in the Hills, 181

hivernants,
94, 96, 99.
See also
Chimney Coulee; Métis

Hole-in-the-Sioux, 137.
See also
Piapot, Chief

homesteaders.
See
settlers and settlement stories

Horse Dance, 161, 167

Horse Guard, 105

horses, 26, 27, 40, 46, 47, 64, 76, 82, 92, 102, 103, 104, 113, 116, 121, 123, 128, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141, 154, 155, 158, 174

Hudson's Bay Company, 60, 88, 91.
See also
Cowie, Isaac

hunger.
See
famine

Hunkajuka, 105

Ice Age geology, 37, 57, 69

Indian Affairs, 163.
See also
Dewdney, Edgar; famine; Macdonald, John A.; reserves and reservations; residential schools; treaty terms

Indian Battle Park, 92

Indian Commissioner, 127.
See also
Dewdney, Edgar

Indian Quarter, 32, 71, 153, 179

“Indian Question,” 124, 127.
See also
Indian Affairs; reserves and reservations; treaty terms

Indian Wars, 5, 7, 60, 117, 119, 125.
See also
United States military

indigenous knowledge, 157–58

Irvine, Assistant Commissioner A. G., 128, 154, 155, 174

Jackpine Mountains, 10

jack pines, 11

Jack's Café, 28–30, 36, 152

Joachim, Patrick and Marie, 179, 180–81

Judith Basin, 96

Jukes, Dr. Augustus, 148–49

Káínai, 74, 92, 183

kani'kanit
, ix, 153

Ka-wezauce, 131, 137, 146

Kennedy, Dan, 110, 111–13

Kootenais (Kutenais), 74, 76–77

Ktunaxa, 74

Lakota nation, 4, 5, 74, 85–86, 117, 119, 120–23, 140–41.
See also
East End post; Sitting Bull, Chief; Wood Mountain