White Bread (40 page)

bakers.
See
bread bakers

bakery inspections, 38, 39, 41

bakery strike of 1801 (New York), 35

bakery strikes, 35, 36

baking bread.
See
bread making

baking industry: bread wrapping and, 43–44; chemical dough conditioners used by, 129; depiction of homemade bread by, 62; health breads, 179–81; health consciousness and, 178; in Japan, 145; on nutrition in white bread, 98–99; product diversification by (1980s and 1990s), 182–83; sliced bread and, 56, 57–58; on synthetic enrichment, 112, 114.
See also
bread bakers;
individual company names

Baking Technology
, 78

Bang, Eleanor, x

Baukhage, H. R., 138

Beard, James, 181

Beard on Bread
(Beard), 181

beer, 3, 4, 23, 39, 163, 164, 192, 193

Belasco, Warren, 166

Bellamy, Edward, 59

Bell Telephone Laboratories, 115

Bench, Frank, 55

Benedict, Francis, 109

Benson, Ezra Taft, 147

beriberi, 115

Berkeley, California, 10, 11–13, 173, 185

Berlin blockade, 139–40

Berrigan, Daniel, 168

Better Homes and Gardens
, 118

Bimbo Bakery, 153–55, 160–61; Bimbo bread, 133–34, 154, 155, 165.
See also
Grupo Bimbo

Black Death, 4

bleached flour, 66–68

Boer War, 108–9

bolillo roll, 149, 150

Borlaug, Norman, 152

botulism, 34

boycotts, bakery, 41

boys (masculinity), 127

bran, 85–86, 97, 99

Brasserie Four (Walla Walla, Washington), 51–52

bread: health bread, 179–81; as issue in the 1960s and 1970s, 168; meaning “food in general,” 3.
See also
industrial bread; white bread; whole wheat bread

Bread Alone bakery, 52

bread bakers: accusations against, in history, 5–6, 19; efforts to increase bread consumption, 30–31; on enriched bread, 113–14; nature of immigrant, 40; working conditions of, 36, 38, 39; workplace safety for, 39.
See also
baking industry

bread choices: demonstrating fitness, 95; social status and, 186–87

bread consumption: fears over declining, 30–31; increase of, during counterculture of 1960s and 1970s, 172–81; increase of, in early twentieth century, 31; in Mexico, 155; during 1930s, 111; during 1940s and 1950s, 122–23; during 1950s, 167; social status and, 7; study of, in Rockford, Illinois (1954–55), 121–22

bread distribution, 3, 4, 138, 155

bread enrichment.
See
enriched bread

bread industry: depiction of homemade bread by, 62

Bread in the Wilderness
(Merton), 168

bread making: assembly-line, 24, 26, 54, 55, 69, 185; automatic baking, 20–25; concerns over microbiology of, 42–43; history of, 3; industrialization of, 24–25; in Mexico, 154–55; nostalgia and, 174, 176–77; pre-modern, xxx; as a techno-science, 60–61; Ward Bakery, New York, 20–21; for wedding, 1-2.
See also
bread bakers; homemade bread

bread mold, 42, 150, 154

“bread question,” 1, 21, 23, 201n1

bread rationing, 3–4, 136, 137–38, 139

bread riots, 4–5, 136, 139, 150

Breadsmith, 183

bread supply: in English history, 5; French Revolution and, 4–5.
See also
bread rationing

Bread Trust, 178.
See also
bread industry; oligopoly

Britain, 4, 112–13, 136

Broussais, François, 80

Brown, Edward Espe, 169

brown bread, 95, 97, 173, 187.
See also
dark breads; rye bread; whole wheat bread

“Builds a Body 8 Ways” ad campaign, 127

Bulnes, Francisco, 149

“Busted Staff of Life” (Anderson), 124–25

Butz, Earl, 167

caloric intake from bread, 4, 6, 20, 111, 123, 136

Camacho, Manuel Ávila, 151

Campbell's Soup Company, 180

Camus, Albert, 166

“Canadian Bread,” 113

capitalism, industrial food production and, 59–60, 170, 171

Cárdenas, Lázaro, 150, 151

Carmona, Richard, 108

Carnegie Institution, 109

celiac disease, 75

cellar bakeries, 38–40, 44

Chautauquan
(journal), 42

chemical additives in bread, 167

Chez Panisse, 12, 186

Chicago Daily Tribune
, 86

Chicago, 26; bakery inspections and regulation in, 38–39; Days of Rage, 172; meatpacking industry in, 38

Chicago Journal of Commerce
, 97–98

Chidlow Institute, 61

children: in bread advertising, 125–26; Graham bread for, 86; school lunch program for Japanese, 144, 145–47; study on enriched bread with, 124.
See also
boys (masculinity)

Chile, 160

Chillicothe, Missouri, x, 51

Chillicothe Baking Company, 55

Chillicothe Constitution-Tribune
, 55

China, 127, 136

cholera, 15, 34, 81–83

Christian, Eugene, 42

Christian physiology, 80–81, 89

Christian Science Monitor
, 129

Churchill, Winston, 136

Civil Defense nutrition classes, 119

Clark, P. L., 73, 98

class: associated with bread in Mexico, 149; and availability of enriched bread, 114–17; bread choices linked with, 37, 46; bread consumption and, 123; rural inequality from Mexico's Agricultural Program and, 157; small bakery revival and, 13; white trash and, 163–65, 187–88.
See also
social status

cleanliness, domestic, 33–34

Cleveland, 26

Cogdell, Christina, 58

Cold War, 14, 125; bread advertising during, 126–27; bread-strength and vigor association during, 125–30; consumer affluence of America and, 140–41; famine relief during, 135; industrial food production and, 134–36, 141, 161; rice vs. wheat and, 147

Colliers
, 129

commercial bakeries, 23, 63.
See also
store-bought bread

Committee on the Deterioration of the Race, 109

The Commune Cookbook
(Dragonwagon), 168, 174, 186

communism: bread/wheat shipments and, 139–40; Mexico and, 150–51, 152; white bread's role in securing Asia against, 144–48.
See also
Cold War

Communists, French, 138–39

“companion,” 1, 6

The Complete Bread, Cake, and Cracker Baker
, 42

conservatives, in alternative food movement, 105–7

Consumer Reports
, 124

contagion.
See
food-borne illnesses; food purity; hygiene; sanitation

Continental Baking Company, 27–28

continuous-mix baking, 69–70

control and abundance, 8, 51–72; associations with whiteness of bread, 64–66; bleached flour, 66–68; control over bread making, 60–61; criticism of homemade bread, 61–63; fermentation process, 68–70; La Brea Bakery, 52–55, 70–71; problems associated with industrial plenty, 71–72; sliced bread, invention of, 55–57; streamlined aesthetic, 57–58; utopian visions, 58–60

convenience, bread choices and, 29–30, 37, 57

cookbooks, counterculture, 169, 177

Corbett, Jim, 10

Corita, Sister, 166, 168

corn, 11, 149–50, 152, 158

Cornell Bread, 113, 114

corn tortillas, 6, 134, 149

counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, ix, 14; American individualism and independence in, 171; anti-capitalism, 170–71; criticism of white bread in, 166–67; food reform during, 168; Grahamism and, 86; and health bread, 179–81; health consciousness and, 177–79; high-end bakeries with roots in, 183–84; increase in bread consumption during, 172; National Bread Day and, 172; revolt against culinary expertise, 169–70; romanticizing the past and, 174, 176–77; self-transformation and, 177; “white bread” meaning in, 165; whole wheat bread and, 173–74; women's place in the kitchen and, 174–76

Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 71

Crimson Spectre, 188

culinary expertise, revolt against, 169–70

cultural assumptions, about Japanese diet, 146–47

Cuordileone, K. A., 128

cyclists, professional, 73–74

Czechoslovakia, 140

Czech Republic, 3

Dangerous Grains
, 74

dark breads, 7, 141–42, 172, 186–87.
See also
brown bread; rye bread; whole wheat bread

Darwinism, 59, 88

Davis, Jon, 52–53, 54, 70

Deschanel, Zooey, 74

Desmond, Thomas C., 121

diammonium phosphate, ix

DÍaz, Porfirio, 149

diet: Assyrian Empire, 3–4; civilian, during wartime, 108–9; criticism of white bread, 89–90; cultural assumptions about Japan's, 146–47; Depression-era, 110; early twentieth-century reformers on, 34; European Middle Ages, 4; gluten-free, 73–78; Sylvester Graham on, 15, 80, 81, 83, 85–86; “improving” race through, 93–95; national security/defense and, 107–10; and Physical Culture, 92; and poverty, 15, 22–23; racial eugenicists on poor, 36; World War II–era, 110–11.
See also
nutrition; poor diet

Dietary Goals for the United States
, 179

Diet for a Small Planet
(Lappe), 179

“Dirt” (Salter), 165

disease: anxieties over bread sanitation and, 42; botulism, 34; celiac disease, 75; cholera, 15, 81–83; E. coli, 19; personal responsibility and, 82; typhoid, 34; typhus, 46; untainted milk and, 18; white bread as source of, 98.
See also
food-borne illnesses

“Do-Good” defense bread, 129

Do-Maker Process, 69–70

domestic advice on bread making, 60

domesticity: counterculture and, 172; criticism of home baking and, 63; “femivore's dilemma” and, 175–76; professionalization of, 31–33.
See also
housewives

Douglass, William Campbell, 49

draft, military, 110

Dragonwagon, Crescent, 168–70, 174, 186

Dreher, Rob, 106

drought (1945–46), 136

Dugan Brothers, 88–89

Dulles, John Foster, 140

E. coli, 19

Edson, Cyrus, 42

Egypt, bread rationing in ancient, 4

Eisenhower, Dwight, 140

elitism, xi, 71, 186

el Molino (the Windmill), 154

El Trigo de Rockefeller (Rockefeller wheat), 152–53, 155

English Assize of Bread, 5

enriched bread: for the affluent vs. underprivileged, 114–17; aftermath of, 130–31; associated with individual and national strength/defense, 121, 123, 125–30; consumer knowledge on, 117–18; national education campaign for, 118–20; study on health impact of, 124; support for industrial white, 124–25; during wartime, 109, 112–14.
See also
vitamins

ergotism, 143

eugenics, 21, 36, 88, 93–94, 95.
See also
racial eugenics

Europe: American white bread vs. bread from, 142–44; bread choices linked with class in, 37; bread consumed in history of, 4; crop failure and famine in, 136; famine relief for, 136–37; U.S. wheat exports to, 137–40

European-style breads, 51–52, 53, 142–43, 160, 184, 185

euthenics movement, 36–37, 219n50

Everybody's Health, 99

evolution, 94

exercise: Grahamism and, 85; Physical Culture and, 91, 92, 95

extraction rate for flour, 112–13, 137, 222n15

family values, 84

famine, 125, 136

famine relief, 135, 136–37

Farm Journal
, 138

Farrell, Florence, 29, 30

Fast Food Nation
(Schlosser), 11, 48

fasting, 92, 95

FDA, 115

Federal Security Agency, 119

Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 28, 178

femivores, 175–76

fermentation, 189–95; changes in bread through rapid-fire, 77; food safety and, 42–43; industrial bread and, 24; La Brea's commitment to slow, 52, 54, 70; microbiology of, 189–90; political dream of, 190–95; speeding up, 68–70; techno-scientific baking and, 68–69

fiber, dietary, 83, 101, 179, 180–81

Fish, Hamilton, 133

fitness competitions, 93–94

flavor, in European vs. American bread and, 144

Fleischmann's advertisement, 119

Flesch, Rudolf, 141

Flex-o-Matic tray ovens, 154

Flinders, Carol, 175, 176

flour: availability of refined, 65–66; bleached, 66–68; high-extraction, 112–13, 137, 222n15; refined, 65–66, 78, 83; unbleached, 68, 180; U.S. aid with, 138, 139–40; used for Mexican bread making, 154–55.
See also
enriched bread; refined wheat/flour; white flour

Flournoy, J. J., 86

food, industrial.
See
industrial food

and food production food, knowing origins of your, 48–49

food access, 159

food aid, 135

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 115

food-borne illnesses, 19, 34, 35, 46–47

Food for Peace, 192 “food in general,” bread meaning, 3

Food in War and in Peace
, 121

food movements: dialogue about food and, 195–96; dream of naturalness in, 194; euthenics movement, 36–37; Grahamism, 79–88; Pure Foods Movement, 18–19, 68.
See also
alternative food movement; counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s

food politics, 6, 10, 11; of agriculture, 107; in Berkeley, California, 12; dreamworlds and, 13–16; of Mexican food production, 134–35; “the Mexican Miracle” and, 134, 155–58; in 1960s

counterculture, 170–71

food power: during Cold War, 135; famine relief and, 137; food access and, 159; with Mexico, 148, 151

food production.
See
industrial food and food production

food purity: anxieties over homemade bread and, 44–45; automatic baking and, 20; bakery inspections/regulation and, 38–39; early twentieth-century concern over, 34–35; and Pure Foods Movement, 18–19, 68; social purity confused with, 19–20.
See also
food safety; hygiene; purity and contagion, dreams of; sanitation