What Hath God Wrought (158 page)
Read What Hath God Wrought Online
Authors: Daniel Walker Howe
Tags: #History, #United States, #19th Century, #Americas (North; Central; South; West Indies), #Modern, #General, #Religion
27. Appleby,
Inheriting the Revolution
, 77–78. See also Kenneth Sokoloff, “Investment in Fixed and Working Capital During Early Industrialization,”
Journal of Economic History
44 (1984): 545–56.
Inheriting the Revolution
, 77–78. See also Kenneth Sokoloff, “Investment in Fixed and Working Capital During Early Industrialization,”
Journal of Economic History
44 (1984): 545–56.
28. Meinig,
Continental America
, 382; Priscilla Brewer,
From Fireplace to Cookstove
(Syracuse, N.Y., 2000), 65. See also Sean Adams, “The Political Economy of Coal,”
Journal of Policy History
18 (2006): 74–95.
Continental America
, 382; Priscilla Brewer,
From Fireplace to Cookstove
(Syracuse, N.Y., 2000), 65. See also Sean Adams, “The Political Economy of Coal,”
Journal of Policy History
18 (2006): 74–95.
29. Wendy Gamber,
The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades
(Urbana, Ill., 1997), 12, 71.
The Female Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking Trades
(Urbana, Ill., 1997), 12, 71.
30. Alan Dawley,
Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn
(Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 54; U.S. Congress, House of Representatives,
Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, Collected…by the Secretary of the Treasury
(Washington, 1833), 2 vols.
Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn
(Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 54; U.S. Congress, House of Representatives,
Documents Relative to the Manufactures in the United States, Collected…by the Secretary of the Treasury
(Washington, 1833), 2 vols.
31. Wilentz,
Chants Democratic
, 115.
Chants Democratic
, 115.
32. Bruce Laurie,
Artisans into Workers
(New York, 1989), as modified by Richard Stott, “Artisans and Capitalist Development,”
JER
16 (1996): 257–71.
Artisans into Workers
(New York, 1989), as modified by Richard Stott, “Artisans and Capitalist Development,”
JER
16 (1996): 257–71.
33. Gamber,
The Female Economy
, 67, 79.
The Female Economy
, 67, 79.
34. Robert Gallman, “Growth and Change in the Long Nineteenth Century,” in
Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, ed. Stanley Engerman and Robert Gallman (Cambridge, Eng., 1996–2000), II, 2–8.
Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, ed. Stanley Engerman and Robert Gallman (Cambridge, Eng., 1996–2000), II, 2–8.
35. Clayne Pope, “Inequality in the Nineteenth Century,”
Cambridge Economic History of U.S.
, II, 120; U.S. census data for 1860, http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/census. The percentage of southern white men owning slaves varied between states but showed remarkable consistency over time between 1830 and 1860.
Cambridge Economic History of U.S.
, II, 120; U.S. census data for 1860, http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/census. The percentage of southern white men owning slaves varied between states but showed remarkable consistency over time between 1830 and 1860.
36. Donald Adams, “Prices and Wages,” in
Encyclopedia of American Economic History
, ed. Glenn Porter (New York, 1980), 229–46; Lee Soltow, “Inequalities in the Standard of Living in the United States, 1798–1875,” in
American Economic Growth and Standards of Living Before the Civil War
, ed. Robert Gallman and John Wallis (Chicago, 1992), 121–72; Carole Shammas, “A New Look at Long-Term Trends in Wealth Inequality,”
AHR
98 (1993), 412–31, esp. 427.
Encyclopedia of American Economic History
, ed. Glenn Porter (New York, 1980), 229–46; Lee Soltow, “Inequalities in the Standard of Living in the United States, 1798–1875,” in
American Economic Growth and Standards of Living Before the Civil War
, ed. Robert Gallman and John Wallis (Chicago, 1992), 121–72; Carole Shammas, “A New Look at Long-Term Trends in Wealth Inequality,”
AHR
98 (1993), 412–31, esp. 427.
37. Edward Pessen,
Riches, Class, and Power Before the Civil War
(Lexington, Mass., 1973), 32, 70; James McPherson,
Battle Cry of Freedom
(New York, 1988), 25. On immigrants, see Joseph Ferrie,
Yankeys Now
(New York, 1999); for “millionaire,” Christopher Clark,
Social Change in America
(Chicago, 2006), 196.
Riches, Class, and Power Before the Civil War
(Lexington, Mass., 1973), 32, 70; James McPherson,
Battle Cry of Freedom
(New York, 1988), 25. On immigrants, see Joseph Ferrie,
Yankeys Now
(New York, 1999); for “millionaire,” Christopher Clark,
Social Change in America
(Chicago, 2006), 196.
38. Wilentz,
Chants Democratic
, 61–103.
Chants Democratic
, 61–103.
39. Walter Licht,
Industrializing America
(Baltimore, 1995), 48–57.
Industrializing America
(Baltimore, 1995), 48–57.
40. Wilentz,
Chants Democratic
, 158–62, 176–78.
Chants Democratic
, 158–62, 176–78.
41. Thomas Skidmore, “The Rights of Man to Property” (1829), in
The Perfectionists
, ed. Laurence Veysey (New York, 1973), 83–92.
The Perfectionists
, ed. Laurence Veysey (New York, 1973), 83–92.
42. Paul Conkin,
Prophets of Prosperity
(Bloomington, 1980), 237–52; Shelley Streeby,
American Sensations
(Berkeley, 2002), 178–83.
Prophets of Prosperity
(Bloomington, 1980), 237–52; Shelley Streeby,
American Sensations
(Berkeley, 2002), 178–83.
43. For the broad impact of the National Reform movement, see Mark Lause,
Young America
(Urbana, Ill., 2005). Also see Jamie Bronstein,
Land Reform and Working-Class Experience in Britain and the United States
(Stanford, 1999).
Young America
(Urbana, Ill., 2005). Also see Jamie Bronstein,
Land Reform and Working-Class Experience in Britain and the United States
(Stanford, 1999).
44. See Robert Gordon, “Realizing the Ideal of Interchangeability,” in
The Industrial Revolution in America
, ed. Gary Kornblith (Boston, 1998), 88–98.
The Industrial Revolution in America
, ed. Gary Kornblith (Boston, 1998), 88–98.
45. See Thomas Cochran,
Frontiers of Change: Early American Industrialization
(New York, 1981); Stott, “Artisans and Capitalist Development”; Zorina Khan and Kenneth Sokoloff, “Entrepreneurship and Innovation Among ‘Great Inventors’ in the United States, 1790–1865,”
Journal of Economic History
53 (1993): 289–307.
Frontiers of Change: Early American Industrialization
(New York, 1981); Stott, “Artisans and Capitalist Development”; Zorina Khan and Kenneth Sokoloff, “Entrepreneurship and Innovation Among ‘Great Inventors’ in the United States, 1790–1865,”
Journal of Economic History
53 (1993): 289–307.
46. See Richard Stott,
Workers in the Metropolis
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1990).
Workers in the Metropolis
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1990).
47. Quoted in C. K. McFarland and Robert Thistlethwaite, “Labor Press Demands Equal Education,”
Journalism Quarterly
65 (1988): 600–608. See also William Rorabaugh,
The Craft Apprentice
(New York, 1986), 113–27.
Journalism Quarterly
65 (1988): 600–608. See also William Rorabaugh,
The Craft Apprentice
(New York, 1986), 113–27.
48. See William Sutton,
Journeymen for Jesus
(University Park, Pa., 1998); 270–87 deal with the Washingtonians.
Journeymen for Jesus
(University Park, Pa., 1998); 270–87 deal with the Washingtonians.
49. On support for the Whigs, see John Brooke,
The Heart of the Commonwealth
(Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 316; on support for the Democrats, Randolph Roth, “Did Class Matter in American Politics?”
Historical Methods
31 (1998): 5–25.
The Heart of the Commonwealth
(Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 316; on support for the Democrats, Randolph Roth, “Did Class Matter in American Politics?”
Historical Methods
31 (1998): 5–25.
50. The C&O at the time was headed by Jackson’s friend John Eaton. See Richard Morris, “Andrew Jackson, Strikebreaker,”
AHR
55 (1949): 54–68.
AHR
55 (1949): 54–68.
51. Amos Kendall,
Report of the Postmaster General
, 24th Cong., 1st sess. (1835), quoted in Richard John,
Spreading the News
(Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 272.
Report of the Postmaster General
, 24th Cong., 1st sess. (1835), quoted in Richard John,
Spreading the News
(Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 272.
52. See John Ashworth, ‘
Agrarians’ and ‘Aristocrats’: Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837–1846
(London, 1983).
Agrarians’ and ‘Aristocrats’: Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837–1846
(London, 1983).
53. Finch is quoted in David Roediger,
The Wages of Whiteness
(New York, 1991), 77; Fisk and Brownson in Gerald Henig, “The Jacksonian Attitude Toward Abolitionism,”
Tennessee Historical Quarterly
28 (1969): 53–54.
The Wages of Whiteness
(New York, 1991), 77; Fisk and Brownson in Gerald Henig, “The Jacksonian Attitude Toward Abolitionism,”
Tennessee Historical Quarterly
28 (1969): 53–54.
54. Celia Eckhardt,
Fanny Wright
(Cambridge, Mass., 1984), 243–50.
Fanny Wright
(Cambridge, Mass., 1984), 243–50.
55. Lois Horton, “From Class to Race in Early America,”
JER
19 (1999): 629–49.
JER
19 (1999): 629–49.
56. See, for example, Anthony Gronowicz,
Race and Class Politics in New York City Before the Civil War
(Boston, 1998).
Race and Class Politics in New York City Before the Civil War
(Boston, 1998).
57. Wilentz,
Chants Democratic
, 235.
Chants Democratic
, 235.
58. Walter Hugins,
Jacksonian Democracy and the Working Class
(Stanford, 1960), 39–48.
Jacksonian Democracy and the Working Class
(Stanford, 1960), 39–48.
59. Lucy Larcom,
A New England Girlhood
, ed. Charles T. Davis (1889; New York, 1961); Shirley Marchalonis,
The Worlds of Lucy Larcom
(Athens, Ga., 1989), 29–34.
A New England Girlhood
, ed. Charles T. Davis (1889; New York, 1961); Shirley Marchalonis,
The Worlds of Lucy Larcom
(Athens, Ga., 1989), 29–34.
60. Sarah Bagley, “Voluntary?”
Voice of Industry
, Sept. 18, 1845, in
The Factory Girls
, ed. Philip Foner (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 160.
Voice of Industry
, Sept. 18, 1845, in
The Factory Girls
, ed. Philip Foner (Urbana, Ill., 1977), 160.
61. Thomas Dublin,
Women at Work: Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826–1860
, 2nd ed. (New York, 1993), 116–22, 138–40, 199–207; Teresa Murphy,
Ten Hours’ Labor: Religion, Reform and Gender in Early New England
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1992), 203–12.
Women at Work: Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826–1860
, 2nd ed. (New York, 1993), 116–22, 138–40, 199–207; Teresa Murphy,
Ten Hours’ Labor: Religion, Reform and Gender in Early New England
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1992), 203–12.
62. Dublin,
Women at Work
, 57. See also Jama Lazerow, “Religion and the Mill Girl,”
New England Quarterly
60 (1987), 429–53.
Women at Work
, 57. See also Jama Lazerow, “Religion and the Mill Girl,”
New England Quarterly
60 (1987), 429–53.
63. Licht,
Industrializing America
, 58.
Industrializing America
, 58.
64. Maurice Neufeld, “The Size of the Jacksonian Labor Movement,”
Labor History
23 (1982): 599–607; and the same author’s statistics in
Labor History
10 (1969): 10.
Labor History
23 (1982): 599–607; and the same author’s statistics in
Labor History
10 (1969): 10.
65. See Mark M. Smith,
Mastered by the Clock: Time, Slavery, and Freedom in the American South
(Chapel Hill, 1997).
Mastered by the Clock: Time, Slavery, and Freedom in the American South
(Chapel Hill, 1997).
66. Jonathan Prude,
The Coming of Industrial Order
(Cambridge, Eng., 1983), 143, 150–54; Cynthia Shelton,
The Mills of Manayunk
(Baltimore, 1986), 120, 147–48.
The Coming of Industrial Order
(Cambridge, Eng., 1983), 143, 150–54; Cynthia Shelton,
The Mills of Manayunk
(Baltimore, 1986), 120, 147–48.
67. Leonard Bernstein, “The Working People of Philadelphia,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
74 (1950): 336–39.
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
74 (1950): 336–39.
68. Christopher Tomlins,
Law, Labor, and Ideology in the Early American Republic
(Cambridge, Eng., 1993), 180–219.
Law, Labor, and Ideology in the Early American Republic
(Cambridge, Eng., 1993), 180–219.
69. Jonathan Prude,
Working-Class America
(Urbana, Ill., 1983); Robert Steinfeld,
Coercion, Contract, and Free Labor in the Nineteenth Century
(Cambridge, Eng., 2001).
Working-Class America
(Urbana, Ill., 1983); Robert Steinfeld,
Coercion, Contract, and Free Labor in the Nineteenth Century
(Cambridge, Eng., 2001).
70. Donald Cole,
Martin Van Buren and the American Political System
(Princeton, 1984), 367–68.
Martin Van Buren and the American Political System
(Princeton, 1984), 367–68.
71. Robert Margo, “The Labor Force in the Nineteenth Century,” in
Cambridge Economic History of U.S.
, II, 229–30.
Cambridge Economic History of U.S.
, II, 229–30.
72. Robert Starobin,
Industrial Slavery in the Old South
(New York, 1970), 125–28; Ronald Lewis,
Coal, Iron, and Slaves
(Westport, Conn., 1979), 31–34; Patricia Schecter, “Free and Slave Labor in the Old South,”
Labor History
35 (1994), 165–86.
Industrial Slavery in the Old South
(New York, 1970), 125–28; Ronald Lewis,
Coal, Iron, and Slaves
(Westport, Conn., 1979), 31–34; Patricia Schecter, “Free and Slave Labor in the Old South,”
Labor History
35 (1994), 165–86.
73. Lewis,
Coal, Iron, and Slaves
, 33.
Coal, Iron, and Slaves
, 33.
74. Licht,
Industrializing America
, 35–38.
Industrializing America
, 35–38.
75. Walter Johnson,
Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market
(Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 6. See also Claudia Goldin,
Urban Slavery in the American South
(Chicago, 1976).
Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market
(Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 6. See also Claudia Goldin,
Urban Slavery in the American South
(Chicago, 1976).
76. Many outstanding social and economic historians have addressed this issue. For a concise, judicious, but somewhat technical analysis, see Fred Bateman and Thomas Weiss,
A Deplorable Scarcity: The Failure of Industrialization in the Slave Economy
(Chapel Hill, 1981).
A Deplorable Scarcity: The Failure of Industrialization in the Slave Economy
(Chapel Hill, 1981).
77. David Montgomery,
Citizen Worker
(Cambridge, Eng., 1993), 31–32.
Citizen Worker
(Cambridge, Eng., 1993), 31–32.
78. David Maldwyn Ellis,
Landlords and Farmers in the Hudson-Mohawk Region
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1946), esp. 227, 233.
Landlords and Farmers in the Hudson-Mohawk Region
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1946), esp. 227, 233.
79. Reeve Huston,
Land and Freedom: Rural Society, Popular Protest, and Party Politics in Antebellum New York
(New York, 2000), esp. 45–76.
Land and Freedom: Rural Society, Popular Protest, and Party Politics in Antebellum New York
(New York, 2000), esp. 45–76.
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