The Truth Machine (37 page)

25
. Mayhew (1856) cited in Daniel Pick,
Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–1918
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 183.

26
. Mayhew (1851) quoted in Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
31.

27
. B. A. Morel quoted in Kelly Hurley,
The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin-de-Siècle
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 66, citing Max Simon Nordau,
Degeneration,
trans. from 2nd German ed. (London: Heinemann, 1895), 16.

28
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
19–20; Rafter, “The Unrepentant Horse-Slasher.”

29
. Rafter, “The Unrepentant Horse-Slasher,” 1002, 991.

30
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
229.

31
. Ibid., 338.

32
. Ibid., 166.

33
. John Van Wyhe,
Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism
(Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2004); Nicole Hahn Rafter, “The Murderous Dutch Fiddler: Criminology, History and the Problem of Phrenology,”
Theoretical Criminology
9, no. 1 (2005): 65–96.

34
. Rafter, “The Murderous Dutch Fiddler,” 65, 66.

35
. Hewett Watson (1836) quoted in David de Giustino,
Conquest of Mind: Phrenology and Victorian Social Thought
(London: Croom Helm, 1975), 146.

36
. On “technologies of the self” see Nikolas Rose,
Inventing Our Selves: Psychology, Power, and Personhood
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

37
. Some examples are: James Simpson,
The Necessity of Popular Education, as a National Object; with Hints on the Treatment of Criminals and Observations of Homicidal Insanity
(Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1834); George Combe,
Remarks on the Principles of Criminal Legislation and the Practice of Prison Discipline
(London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1854); Marmaduke B. Sampson,
Rationale of Crime, and its Appropriate Treatment: Being a Treatise on Criminal Jurisprudence Considered in Relation to Cerebral Organization
(New York: D. Appleton, 1846); James P. Browne,
Phrenology and its Application to Education, Insanity and Prison Discipline
(London: Bickers and Son, 1869).

38
. Quoted in Hagner, “Skulls, Brains, and Memorial Culture,” 200.

39
. A Member of the Phrenological and Philosophical Societies of Glasgow,
The Philosophy of Phrenology Simplified
(Glasgow: W. R. McPhun, 1838), 185–86.

40
. A Member,
The Philosophy of Phrenology Simplified,
192.

41
. Thomas Stone,
Observations on the Phrenological Development of Burke, Hare and Other Atrocious Murderers
(Edinburgh: Robert Buchanan, 1829), 13.

42
. For a recent account of this case see Zbigniew Kotowicz, “The Strange Case of Phineas Gage,”
History of the Human Sciences
20 (2007): 115–31.

43
. Quoted in F. G. Barker, “Phineas among the Phrenologists: The American Crowbar Case and Nineteenth-Century Theories of Cerebral Localization,
Journal of Neurosurgery
82 (1995): 678.

44
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
17–18.

45
. James De Ville,
Manual of Phrenology as an Accompaniment to the Phrenological Bust
(London, 1828), 31.

46
. De Ville,
Manual of Phrenology,
32.

47
. Combe,
Remarks on the Principle of Criminal Legislation,
36.

48
. Ibid., 37

49
. Frederick Bridges,
Criminals, Crimes, and their Governing Laws, as Demonstrated by the Sciences of Physiology and Mental Geometry
(London: George, Philip and Son, 1860), preface, n.p.

50
. Ibid., 8.

51
. Ibid., 18.

52
. Ibid., 22.

53
. Ibid., 23.

54
. Combe (1841) quoted in Rafter, “The Murderous Dutch Fiddler,” 77.

55
. Rafter, “The Murderous Dutch Fiddler,” 79.

56
. de Giustino,
Conquest of Mind,
chap. 7.

57
. Roger Cooter,
The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

58
. Rafter, “The Murderous Dutch Fiddler,” 75.

59
. Not everyone read benevolence and reform into phrenology, however: “Because we should be able to identify on a person's skull the marks of serious villainy, the state should prescribe an examination of the skull for everyone who reaches the age of twenty-five. Everyone found guilty of having a dangerous predisposition should be hanged or confined preventively, depending on his anticipated offense!” Gustav Zimmerman (1845) quoted in Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell,
Criminals and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 8.

60
. On the importance of character in the nineteenth century see Warren I. Susman, “Personality and the Making of Twentieth-century Culture,” in
Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century
(New York: Pantheon, 1984), 271–85; Stefan Collini, “The Idea of ‘Character' in Victorian Political Thought,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Fifth Series
35 (1985): 29–50; Melanie White and Alan Hunt, “Citizenship: Care of the Self, Character and Personality,”
Citizenship Studies
4, no. 2 (2000): 93–116; Ben Weinstein, “‘Local Self-Government Is True Socialism': Joshua Toulmin Smith, the State and Character Formation,”
English Historical Review
123, no. 504 (2008): 1193–1228.

61
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
45.

62
. Ibid., 91.

63
. Charles Bray, “The Physiology of the Brain,”
Anthropological Review
7, no. 26 (1869): 271.

64
. Ibid., 275.

65
. Ibid., 277. On the phrenologists' organized opposition to the transportation of convicts, see de Giustino,
Conquest of Mind,
153–62.

66
. Weinstein, “Local Self-Government Is True Socialism,” 1199.

67
. T. S. Clouston, “The Developmental Aspects of Criminal Anthropology,”
The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
23 (1894): 216.

68
. Girard de Rialle, “French Anthropology,”
The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
9 (1880): 234.

69
. Ibid.

70
. J. B. Thomson, “The Hereditary Nature of Crime,”
Journal of Mental Science
15 (1870): 488 (emphasis in original).

71
. Ibid., 491.

72
. Ibid., 497–98.

73
. Ibid., 489.

74
. Ibid., 490.

75
. Ibid., 494.

76
. Ibid., 498.

77
. Lombroso in Mary S. Gibson, “Cesare Lombroso and Italian Criminology: Theory and Politics,” in Becker and Wetzell,
Criminals and their Scientists,
139.

78
. Thomson, “The Hereditary Nature of Crime,” 487. See also J. B. Thomson, “The Psychology of Criminals,”
Journal of Mental Science
17 (1870): 321–50.

79
. Thomson, “The Hereditary Nature of Crime,” 489.

80
. Ibid., 496.

81
. Ibid., 498.

82
. Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
35.

83
. Henry Maudsley,
Responsibility in Mental Disease,
5th ed. (London: C. Kegan Paul and Co., 1892), 28, quoted in Wiener,
Reconstructing the Criminal,
232.

84
. Henry Maudsley,
Body and Mind
(London: Macmillan, 1873), 135.

85
. Maudsley,
Responsibility in Mental Disease,
29–30. On Maudsley see Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
203–16, and Elaine Showalter,
The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980
(London: Virago Press, 1987).

86
. Maudsley,
Responsibility in Mental Disease,
22.

87
. Rafter, “The Murderous Dutch Fiddler.”

88
. Ibid.

89
. I owe this charismatic anecdote and much of what follows to Mary Gibson,
Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 9.

90
. Ottolenghi (1908) quoted in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
135.

91
. Lombroso (1879) quoted in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
135.

92
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
135.

93
. Ottolenghi (1914) quoted in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
138.

94
. Cesare Lombroso,
Criminal Man According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso, Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso Ferrero, with an Introduction by Cesare Lombroso
(New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1911), xiv.

95
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
27.

96
. Gibson, “Cesare Lombroso and Italian Criminology.”

97
. David G. Horn,
The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance
(London: Routledge, 2003).

98
. Gibson, “Cesare Lombroso and Italian Criminology,” 151.

99
. Marvin E. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso,” in
Pioneers in Criminology,
ed. Hermann Mannheim, 2nd ed. (Montclair: Patterson Smith, 1972), 250.

100
. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso,” 251.

101
. Gabriel Tarde,
Criminalité Comparée
(Paris: F. Alcan, 1886) quoted in Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso,” 280.

102
. Cited in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
35.

103
. Raffaello Garofalo,
Criminology
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1914), 95, cited in Gibson,
Born to Crime,
36.

104
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
35–36.

105
. Nicole Hahn Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals
(Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 128.

106
. Clouston, “The Developmental Aspects of Criminal Anthropology,” 218 (emphasis added).

107
. Ibid., 219.

108
. Ibid., 225.

109
. Garland, “Of Crimes and Criminals,” 28.

110
. Richard Bach Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology and Anarchist Terrorism in Spain and Italy,”
Mediterranean Historical Review
16, no. 2 (December 2001): 31–44 (quote on 36).

111
. Robert Nye, “Heredity or Milieu: The Foundations of European Criminological Theory,”
Isis
67 (1976): 335–55.

112
. But see Martin S. Staum,
Labeling People: French Scholars on Society, Race and Empire, 1815–1848
(Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003), 167.

113
. On the role that the Congresses played in the emergence of criminology see Martine Kaluszynski, “The International Congresses of Criminal Anthropology: Shaping the French and International Criminological Movement, 1886–1914,” in Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell,
Criminals and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

114
. Lacassagne (1885) cited in Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
109.

115
. Gibson,
Born to Crime,
42.

116
. On the biometric school see Donald A. Mackenzie,
Statistics in Britain, 1865–1930: The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981); and Michael Cowles,
Statistics in Psychology: An Historical Perspective
(Mahway: LEA, 2001).

117
. On Bertillon's anthropometry see Allan Sekula, “The Body and the Archive,”
October
39 (1986), 3–64; and Hutchings,
The Criminal Spectre,
chap. 5.

118
. On Tarde see Christian Borch, “Urban Imitations: Tarde's Sociology Revisited,”
Theory, Culture and Society
22, no. 3 (2005): 81–100.

119
. Nye, “Heredity or Milieu,” 348.

120
. Pick,
Faces of Degeneration,
140.

121
. Staum,
Labeling People,
167.

122
. Nye, “Heredity or Milieu,” 346.

123
. Gibson,
Born to Crime.

124
. Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology,” 36.

125
. Ibid., 37.

126
. Lombroso,
Gli Anarchici
(1894), 21, quoted by Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology,” 33.

127
. Jensen, “Criminal Anthropology,” 35.

128
. Ibid., 40.

129
. Ibid.

130
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
39.

131
. Koch (1894) in Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
54.

132
. Wetzell,
Inventing the Criminal,
47.

133
. Ibid., 297–98.

134
. Roland Grassberger, “Hans Gross,” 1847–1915, in
Pioneers of Criminology,
ed. H. Mannheim, 2nd ed. (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1972), 305–17 (quote on 307).

135
. Lombroso-Ferrero (1911), 135, quoted in Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
106.