The Truth Machine (41 page)

82
. Ibid., 536.

83
. Kellor, “Psychological and Environmental Study II,” 679 (emphasis in original).

84
. Ibid., 681.

85
. Kellor, “Psychological and Environmental Study I,” 541.

86
. Ibid., 541–42.

87
. Ibid., 542.

88
. Kellor, “Psychological and Environmental Study II,” 677.

89
. Ibid., 677.

90
. It is perhaps significant, given the hitherto male-dominated enterprise of criminology, that Kellor was female. According to Alison Young, fin-de-siècle discourses such as psychoanalysis, criminology, and sexology were convinced that the puzzle of women could be solved thanks to “the suspicion that women are known to themselves, enigmatic only across the divide of sexual difference.” Young,
Imagining Crime,
31.

91
. Kellor was the daughter of an impoverished widow. She graduated from Cornell Law School in 1897. A political activist and writer, Kellor founded the National League for the Protection of Colored Women in 1906 and by 1908 was the secretary of the New York State Immigration Commission. She wrote a dozen books and numerous articles, especially in popular periodicals of the progressive era. She was also a founder member and first vicepresident of the American Arbitration Association. See “Kellor, Frances Alice (1873–1952),” in Doris Weatherford,
American Women's History: An A to Z of People, Organizations, Issues, and Events
(New York: Prentice Hall, 1994), 195–96; and Lucille O'Connell, “Kellor, Frances,” in
Notable American Women: The Modern Period, A Biographical Dictionary,
ed. Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 393–95.

Epigraph.
Gilbert K. Chesterton, “The Mistake of the Machines,” in
The Complete Father Brown
(New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1914/1982), 298.

1
. Frank Marshall White, “The Soul Machine,”
Harper's Weekly
52, December 19, 1908, 12–13, 32.

2
. Charles Edmonds Walk,
The Yellow Circle
(New York: A. L. Burt Co., 1909).

3
. “Discovery Made by a Swiss Doctor May Play an Important Part in Criminal Trials,”
New York Times,
June 9, 1907 V, 8.

4
. Ibid.

5
. Ibid.

6
. Ibid.

7
. Ibid.

8
. Ibid.

9
. Eva Neumann and Richard Blanton, “The Early History of Electrodermal Research,”
Psychophysiology
6, no. 4 (1970): 453–75.

10
. E. Prideaux, “The Psychogalvanic Reflex: A Review,”
Brain
43 (1920): 50.

11
. Ibid.

12
. Frederick Peterson and Carl G. Jung, “Psycho-Physical Investigations with the Galvanometer and Pneumograph in Normal and Insane Individuals,”
Brain
30 (1907): 155; Neumann and Blanton “The Early History of Electrodermal Research,” 453–75.

13
. Quoted in Paul V. Trovillo, “A History of Lie Detection,”
Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
30 (1939): 104.

14
. Frederick Peterson, “The Galvanometer as a Measurer of Emotions,”
The British Medical Journal
(September 28, 1907): 804.

15
. Carl G. Jung, “On Psychophysical Relations of the Associative Experiment,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
1 (1907): 247.

16
. Trovillo reports that Veraguth “was one of the first to make word-association tests with the galvanometer.” Trovillo, “A History of Lie Detection,” 105.

17
. “Discovery Made by a Swiss Doctor” V, 8.

18
. For the history of the clinical experiment see Kurt Danziger,
Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 52–54.

19
. “Emotional complex” was a term Jung had introduced by amalgamating Theodor Ziehen's “gefühlsbetonter vorstellungskomplex” and Pierre Janet's “ideé fixe subconsciente.” See Henri F. Ellenberger,
The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry
(New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1970), 149, 692–94.

20
. “Discovery Made by a Swiss Doctor” V, 8.

21
. Peterson, “The Galvanometer as a Measurer of Emotions,” 804. See also Frederick Peterson, “The Galvanometer in Psychology,”
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease
35 (1908): 273–74.

22
. Peterson, “The Galvanometer as a Measurer of Emotions,” 805. See also Knight Dunlap's critical review “Galvanometric Deflections with Electrodes Applied to the Animal Body,”
Psychological Bulletin
7 (1910): 174–77. “The striking thing about all the work on psychogalvanism is that the enthusiasts have either been unable to conceive of the simplest and most obvious check experiments, or have been unwilling to carry them out” (176).

23
. E. G. Boring,
A History of Experimental Psychology
(New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, Inc., 1957), 546.

24
. Boring,
A History of Experimental Psychology,
527–28.

25
. E. W. Scripture, “Detection of the Emotions by the Galvanometer,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
(April 11, 1907): 1164 (emphasis added).

26
. Jung, “On Psychophysical Relations of the Associative Experiment,” 247.

27
. Ibid.

28
. According to Kurt Danziger, the meaning of term “personality” as used by Jung would
have still suggested a pathological dimension. Personality as a quality of the ordinary (nonpathological) business leader or charismatic movie star had yet to emerge. See Kurt Danziger,
Naming the Mind: How Psychology Found its Language
(London: Sage Publications, 1997), 124–33.

29
. Jung, “On Psychophysical Relations of the Associative Experiment,” 250.

30
. Peterson and Jung, “Psycho-Physical Investigations with the Galvanometer.”

31
. Charles Ricksher and Carl G. Jung, “Further Investigations on the Galvanic Phenomenon and Respiration in Normal and Insane Individuals,”
Journal of Abnormal Psychology
2 (1907): 203.

32
. Ibid., 215.

33
. Peterson and Jung, “Psycho-Physical Investigations with the Galvanometer,” 172–73.

34
. Ibid., 175.

35
. “Invents Machines for ‘Cure of Liars,'”
New York Times,
September 11, 1907, 9.

36
. Ibid.

37
. “‘I Can Tell if You're a Liar!': Harvard Professor with Strenuous Name Invents Machine that Will Make Him Famous,”
New York Times,
September 15, 1907, E8.

38
. Hugo Münsterberg, “Traces of Emotion and the Criminal,”
Cosmopolitan
44, April 1908, 528.

39
. Hugo Münsterberg,
On the Witness Stand: Essays on Psychology and Crime
(New York: Clark Boardman, 1927), 99–100. First published 1908.

40
. “A Scientific Crime Detector,”
Scientific American Supplement No. 1666
64, December 7, 1907, 363.

41
. Quoted in Mathew Hale,
Human Science and Social Order: Hugo Münsterberg and the Origins of Applied Psychology
(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), 119.

42
. Jutta Spillmann and Lothar Spillmann, “The Rise and Fall of Hugo Münsterberg,”
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences
29 (1993): 329.

43
. See, for example, Hugo Münsterberg, “Hypnotism and Crime,”
McClure's Magazine
30, January 1908, 317–22; and Hugo Münsterberg, “The Prevention of Crime”
McClure's Magazine
30, April 1908, 750–56.

44
. Hugo Münsterberg “Nothing But The Truth,”
McClure's Magazine
29, September 1907, 532–36.

45
. “A Psychologist's Judicial Warning,”
New York Times,
August 25, 1907 II, 16.

46
. Münsterberg, “Nothing But The Truth,” 536.

47
. Hugo Münsterberg, “The Third Degree,”
McClure's Magazine
29, October 1907, 614–22.

48
. Münsterberg, “The Third Degree,” 614.

49
. Ibid., 615.

50
. Ibid.

51
. Ruth Benschop and Douwe Draaisma, “In Pursuit of Precision: The Calibration of Minds and Machines in Late Nineteenth-century Psychology,”
Annals of Science
57 (2000): 1–25.

52
. Münsterberg, “The Third Degree,” 615.

53
. Ibid., 617.

54
. Ken Alder,
The Lie Detectors: The History of an American Obsession
(New York: Free Press, 2007), 47.

55
. Münsterberg, “The Third Degree,” 619.

56
. Ibid., 622.

57
. “Applied Psychology and Its Possibilities,”
New York Times,
September 22, 1907 V, 9.

58
. Ibid.

59
. Ibid.

60
. Ibid.

61
. White, “The Soul Machine.”

62
. Ibid., 12.

63
. “Discovery Made by a Swiss Doctor” V, 8.

64
. White, “The Soul Machine.”

65
. Ibid.,12.

66
. “Mr. B- was asked to charge his mind with the crime of having stolen the cigar-box and the articles it contained, and to produce himself with a conscience as guilty as possible at Dr. Peterson's office the next evening, prepared to resist all efforts to extort his unholy secret from him.” White, “The Soul Machine,” 13.

67
. O. Mezger, “Photography in the Service of the Law,”
Scientific American Supplement No. 1765,
October 30, 1909, 284.

68
. Ibid.

69
. “Why the Great Scientist will Supersede the Great Detective,”
Current Literature
51, September 1911, 279–81.

70
. “Why the Great Scientist will Supersede the Great Detective,” 280.

71
. “Laboratory Study of Criminals,”
The Literary Digest
45, November 16, 1912, 898.

72
. Edward A. Ayres, “Measuring Thought with a Machine,”
Harper's Weekly
52, May 9, 1908, 27 (emphasis in original).

73
. Ibid.

74
. Ibid.

75
. Ibid.

76
. “Electric Machine to Tell Guilt of Criminals,”
New York Times,
September 10, 1911, V, 6.

77
. Ibid.

78
. Ibid.

79
. Ibid.

80
. Raymond E. Fancher,
The Intelligence Men: Makers of the IQ Controversy
(New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1985), 108.

81
. Nicole Hahn Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals
(Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 143.

82
. Ibid., 145.

83
. Ibid., 136.

84
. Leila Zenderland, “The Debate over Diagnosis: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Medical Acceptance of Intelligence Testing,” in
Psychological Testing and American Society 1890–1930,
ed. Michael M. Sokal (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 59.

85
. John A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson, “Pioneer Psychology Laboratories in Clinical Settings,” in
Explorations in the History of Psychology in the United States,
ed. Josef Brozek (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1984), 241.

86
. Rafter,
Creating Born Criminals,
145.

87
. Ibid., 146.

88
. Ibid., 137.

89
. “‘There Is No Criminal Type,' Says Prison Expert.”
New York Times,
November 2, 1913, SM13.

90
. Arthur E. Fink,
Causes of Crime: Biological Theories in the United States
(Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1938), 244.

91
. Fink,
Causes of Crime,
243–49; John L. Gillin, “Economic Factors in the Making of the Criminal,”
Journal of Social Forces
3, no.2 (January 1925): 248–55.

92
. Fink,
Causes of Crime,
251.

93
. “Psychology Squad Latest Police Aid,”
New York Times,
October 30, 1915, 5.

94
. Arthur B. Reeve claimed that the addition of science to crime in detective stories “began when several writers tried to apply psychology, as developed by Prof. Hugo Muenssterberg [sic] of Harvard and Prof. Walter Dill Scott of Northwestern University, to either actual or hypothetical cases of crime.” Arthur B. Reeve (1913) quoted in John Locke, ed.,
From Ghouls to Gangsters: The Career of Arthur B. Reeve,
vol. 2 (Elkhorn, CA: Off-Trail Publications, 2007), 31.

95
. Robert Sampson,
Yesterday's Faces: A Study of Series Characters in the Early Pulp Magazines II, Strange Days
(Bowling Green: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1984), 4.

96
. Sampson,
Yesterday's Faces,
16.

97
. Ibid., 11–12.

98
. Ibid., 47. In “The Supreme Test” Wycherley subjects his subject to a blood pressure test to see if he is a true heir to a fortune or a fraudulent claimant. Sampson,
Yesterday's Faces,
48.

99
. Ibid., 16.

100
. Edwin Balmer and William MacHarg,
The Achievements of Luther Trant
(Boston: Small, Maynard and Co., 1910), 4.