The Russian Revolution (30 page)

23. Sto sorok besed s Molotovym. Iz dnevnikov F. I. Chueva (Moscow, 1991), 184. This is my translation. The English version in Molotov Remembers, trans. Albert Resis (Chicago, 1993), 107, is inaccurate.

24. While the Bolsheviks' initial assumption that an individual's class identity was self-evident quickly proved false, they persisted for 10-15 years in their efforts to classify the population by social class, regardless of practical and conceptual difficulties. On the difficulties, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Tear off the Masks! (Princeton, 2005), Chs. 2-4, and (on Cossacks as `class enemies' in the Don), Holquist, Making War, esp. PP. 150-97.

25. Bukharin and Preobrazhensky, The ABC of Communism, 272.

26. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, Education and Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921-1934 (Cambridge, 1979), Ch. i.

27. On Jews and the Revolution, see Yuri Slezkine, The Jewish Century (Princeton, NJ, 2004), esp. 173-8o and 220-6.

Chapter 4 (pages 93-119)

i. Between 1912 and 1926, the number of Jews in Moscow and Leningrad more than quadrupled, and there were increases of similar magnitude in the Ukrainian capitals, Kiev and Kharkov. See Slezkine, Jewish Century, 216-18.

2. On the vanishing working class, see D. Koenker, `Urbanization and Deurbanization in the Russian Revolution and Civil War', in D. Koenker, W. Rosenberg, and R. Suny, eds, Party, State, and Society in the Russian Civil War (Bloomington, IN, 1989), and Sheila Fitzpatrick, `The Bolsheviks' Dilemma: The Class Issue in Party Poli tics and Culture', in Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front (Ithaca, NY, 1992).

3. Oliver H. Radkey, The Unknown Civil War in Soviet Russia (Stanford, CA, 1976), 263.

4. See Paul A. Avrich, Kronstadt, 1921 (Princeton, NJ, 1970), and Israel Getzler, Kronstadt, 1917-1921 (Cambridge, 1983).

5. On NEP, see Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Soviet State and Society between Revolutions, 1918-1929 (Cambridge, 1992).

6. Lenin, `Political Report of the Central Committee to the Eleventh Party Congress' (Mar. 1922), in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow, 1966), xxxiii. 282.

7. Richard Pipes, ed., The Unknown Lenin, trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New Haven, 1996), 152-4-

8. A. I. Mikoyan, Mysli i vospominaniya o Lenine (Moscow, 1970), 139.

9. Molotov Remembers, trans. Resis, loo.

To. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, 96-TOO, 98. For a lively recreation of the 1921 purge at local level, see F. Gladkov, Cement, trans. by A. S. Arthur and C. Ashleigh (New York, 1989), Ch. 16.

ii. Lenin, Collected Works, xxxiii. 288.

12. `Better Fewer, But Better' (2 Mar. 1923), in Lenin, Collected Works, xxxiii. 488.

13. I. N. Yudin, Sotsial'naya baza rosta KPSS (Moscow, 1973), 128.

14. Kommunisty v sostave apparata gosuchrezhdenii i obshchestvennykh organi- zatsii. Itogi vsesoyuznoi partiinoi perepisi 1927 goda (Moscow, 1929), 25; Bol'shevik, 1928 no. 15, 20.

15. The text of the `Testament' is in Robert V. Daniels, ed., A Documentary History of Communism in Russia from Lenin to Gorbachev (Lebanon, NH, 1993), 117-18-

16. See Robert V. Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1960), 225-30.

17. The phrase is Daniels's. For a clear and concise discussion, see Hough and Fainsod, How the Soviet Union is Governed, 124-33, 144.

18. This is the unifying theme of Daniels's study of the Communist Oppositions of the 192os, The Conscience of the Revolution although, as his title indicates, Daniels sees the pleas for internal party democracy as an expression of revolutionary idealism rather than as an inherent function of opposition.

19. See Moshe Lewin, Lenin's Last Struggle (New York, 1968). For an alternative interpretation, see Service, Lenin, Chs. 26-8.

20. On the emergence of the Lenin cult, see Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! (Cambridge, 1983).

21. Lenin, `Our Revolution (A Propos of the Notes of N. Sukhanov)', in his Collected Works, xxxiii. 480.

22. Quoted from Yu. V. Voskresenskii, Perekhod Kommunisticheskoi Partii k osushchestvleniyu politiki sotsialisticheskoi industrializatsii SSSR (19251927) (Moscow, 1969), 162.

23. J. V. Stalin, `October, Lenin and the Prospects of Our Development', in his Works (Moscow, 1954), vii. 258.

24. For these discussions, see E. H. Carr, Socialism in One Country, ii. 36-51.

25. For a detailed examination of the debate, see A. Erlich, The Soviet Industrialization Debate, 1924-1926 (Cambridge, MA, 1960).

26. See Stephen F. Cohen, `Bolshevism and Stalinism', in Tucker, ed., Stalinism, and Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York, 1973); and Moshe Lewin, Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: From Bukharin to the Modern Reformers (Princeton, NJ, 1974).

27. On the party debates on Thermidor, see Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed (London, 1970), 312-32, and Michal Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism, trans. by George Saunders (Bloomington, IN, 1987), 22-3.

28. For worries about youth alienation, see Anne E. Gorsuch, Youth in Revolutionary Russia (Bloomington, IN, 2000), 168-81.

Chapters (pages 120-148)

i. See, e.g., Adam B. Ulam, Stalin (New York, 1973), Ch. 8.

2. With the Law of Suspects (17 Sept. 1793), the Jacobin Convention ordered the immediate arrest of all persons who might be deemed a threat to the revolution by virtue of their actions, connections, writings, or general demeanour. On Stalin's admiration of French Revolutionary terror, see Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin. Triumph and Tragedy, trans. Harold Shukman (London, 1991), 279.

3. Quoted from document in the Political Archive of the German Foreign Ministry by Reiman, Birth of Stalinism, 35-6.

4. On the Shakhty trial and the later `Industrial Party' trial, see Kendall E. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton, NJ, 1978), Chs. 3-5.

5. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, `Stalin and the Making of a New Elite,' in Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front, 153-4, 162-5.

6. Letter from Stalin to V. R. Menzhinskii, c.1930, in Diane P. Koenker and Ronald D. Bachman, eds, Revelations from the Russian Archives: Documents in English Translation (Washington, DC, 1997), 243.

7. Stalin's statements on the procurements crisis (Jan.-Feb. 1928) are in Stalin, Works, xi. 3-22. See also Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power (London, 1968), 214-40.

8. Frumkin's advice is reported in Za chetkuyu klassovuyu liniyu (Novosibirsk, 1929) 73-4; Uglanov's recommendations were outlined by him in a speech in Moscow at the end of January, published in Vtoroi plenum MK RKP(b), 31 yanv. 2 fev. 1928. Doklady i rezoliutsii (Moscow, 1928), 9-11, 38-40.

9. See Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution, 322-3.

io. This comment was made by the Urals party secretary Ivan Kabakov, in response to a belated `Rightist' speech that Rykov made in Sverdlovsk in the summer of 1930. X Ural'skaya konferentsiya Vsesoyuznoi Konunu- nisticheskoi Partii (bol'shevikov) (Sverdlovsk, 193o), Bull. 6, 14.

ii. Stalin, Works, xiii. 40-i.

12. Stalin's remark is quoted in Puti industrializatsii (1928), no. 4, 64-5.

13. See E. H. Carr and R. W. Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929 (London, 1969), i. 843-97.

14. David Ryazanov, in XVI konferentsiya VKP(b), aprel' 1929 g. Stenogra- ficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1962), 214.

15. On the politics of the First Five-Year Plan industrialization, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'Ordzhonikidze's Takeover of Vesenkha: A Case Study in Soviet Bureaucratic Politics', Soviet Studies 37: 2 (Apr. 1985). For a regional case study, see James R. Harris, The Great Urals: Regionalism and the Evolution of the Soviet System (Ithaca, 1999), 38-104.

16. Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (London, 1969), 150.

17. Quoted from R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive (Cambridge, MA, 1980), 148.

18. Stalin, Works, xii. 197-205.

19. Figures cited from Nove, Economic History of the USSR, 197 and 238. On the 25,ooo-ers, see Lynne Viola, The Best Sons of the Fatherland (New York, 1987).

20. Slavic Review, 50: 1 (1991), 152.

21. For discussion of the statistical evidence, see R. W. Davies and Stephen Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931 33 (Basingstoke and New York, 2004), 412-15.

22. Stalin, Works, xiii. 54-5.

23. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, `The Great Departure: RuralUrban Migration in the Soviet Union, 1929-1933', in William R. Rosenberg and Lewis H. Siegelbaum, eds, Social Dimensions of Soviet Industrialization (Bloomington, IN, 1993), 21-2.

24. The discussion that follows is drawn from Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928 2931 (Bloomington, IN, 1978).

25. The following discussion is drawn from Fitzpatrick, `Stalin and the Making of a New Elite', in Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front, and Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility, 184-205. Note that similar policies were implemented on behalf of `backward' nationalities like Uzbeks and Bashkirs: on these, see Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, esp. Ch. 4.

26. On the changing situation of workers during the First Five-Year Plan, see Hiroaki Kuromiya, Stalin's Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, 1988). On subsequent developments, see Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization (New York, 1986).

27. Izmeneniia sotsial'noi struktury sovetskogo obshchestva 1921-seredina 3o-kh godov (Moscow, 1979), 194; Sotsialisticheskoe stroitel'stvo SSSR. Statis- ticheskii ezhegodnik (Moscow, 1934), 356-7.

28. On Soviet isolation, see Jerry F. Hough, Russia and the West: Gorbachev and the Politics of Reform (2nd edn; New York, 1990), 44-66.

Chapter 6 (pages 149-172)

i. Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (rev. edn, New York, 1965), 17.

2. L. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (London, 1937); Nicholas S. Timasheff, The Great Retreat: The Growth and Decline of Communism in Russia (New York, 1946).

3. On the literacy claims, see Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility, 168-76. The suppressed national population census of 1937 found that 75 per cent of the population aged 9 to 49 were literate (Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 199o no. 7, 65-6). Inclusion of the so-plus age group would obviously have lowered the figure.

4. On Turksib, see Matthew J. Payne, Stalin's Railroad: Turksib and the Building of Socialism (Pittsburgh, 2001); on Dneprostroi, see Anne Rassweiler, The Generation of Power: the History of Dneprostroi (Oxford, 1988).

5. Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (new edn; London, 1992), 195-6.

6. Holland Hunter, `The Overambitious First Soviet Five-Year Plan', Slavic Review, 32: 2 (1973), 237-57. For a more positive reading, see Robert C. Allen, Farm and Factory: A Reinterpretation of the Soviet Industrial Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 2003).

7. See James R. Millar, `What's Wrong with the "Standard Story"?', from James Millar and Alec Nove, `A Debate on Collectivization', Problems of Communism (July-Aug. 1976), 53-5.

8. For a more detailed discussion of the actual kolkhoz of the 1930s, see Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants, Chs. 4-5.

9. J. Stalin, Stalin on the New Soviet Constitution (New York, 1936). For the text of the Constitution, accepted by the Eighth Extraordinary Congress of Soviets of the USSR on 5 Dec. 1936, see Constitution: Fundamental Law of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Moscow, 1938).

10. For an argument that the regime's genuine intention to democratize soviet elections was frustrated by the social tensions associated with the Great Purges, see J. Arch Getty, `State and Society under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s', Slavic Review, 50: 1 (Spring ,990-

i i. Quoted in N. L. Rogalina, Kollektivizatsiya: uroki proidennogo puti (Moscow, 1989), 198.

12. See Fitzpatrick, Tear off the Masks!, 40-3, 46-9. Note that although the old forms of discrimination were disappearing, there were new forms. Kolkhozniks did not enjoy equal rights with other citizens, not to mention deported kulaks and other administrative exiles.

13. See Fitzpatrick, `Stalin and the Making of a New Elite', in Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front, 177-8.

14. Diaries and memoirs of people who were young in the 1930s show little if any recognition of a `great retreat': see, for example, Jochen Hellbeck, Revolution on My Mind (Cambridge, MA, 2006).

15. Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935-1941 (Cambridge, 1988).

16. Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility, 212-33; Timasheff, The Great Retreat, 211-25.

17. See David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931-1936 (C ambridge, MA, 2002), 43-62.

18. On the abortion debate, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism (New York, 1999), 152-6.

19. Wendy Z. Goldman, Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 1.