The Female Brain (29 page)

“…traits that are typically female.”:
Hines 2003; Berenbaum 1999, 2001.

“…testosterone that gets into the fetal brain.”:
Knickmeyer 2006.

“…and more neurons to that activity.”:
McClure 2000; Fivush 1989; Merzenich 1983.

“…and less adventurous than boys.”:
Golomboch 1994.

“…people and with our environment.”:
Cameron 2005; Iervolino 2005.

“…susceptibility to environmental influences.”:
Iervolino 2005.

“…child development is inextricably both.”:
Iervolino 2005.

“…boys—but don’t be fooled.”:
Archer 2005; Crick 1996.

“…both sexes have brain circuits for it.”:
Campbell 2005.

“…reflecting their unique brain circuitry.”:
Campbell 2005; Archer 2005.

“…stereotype born out of the contrast with boys.”:
Knight 2002; Archer 2005.

“…the prison system will confirm.”:
Campbell 2005.

TWO: T
EEN
G
IRL
B
RAIN

“…and obsesses over her looks.”:
Giedd 1996, 2004, 2005 personal communication.

“…for independence and identity.”:
Nelson 2005; Schweinsburg 2005.

“…nurturing those around them.”:
McClure 2000.

“…well-being during these rocky years.”:
Udry 2004; Baumeister 2000.

“…monthly waves from her ovaries.”:
Speroff 2005.

“…that difference becomes even greater.”:
Gaab 2003.

“…new estrogen and progesterone fuel.”:
Goldstein 2005; Giedd 1997.

“…puberty and into early adulthood.”:
Schweinsburg 2005; Luna 2004.

“…until she passes through menopause.”:
Jasnow 2006; Hodes 2005; Shors 2005.

“…their daily levels of cortisol.”:
Morgan 2004; Stroud 2004.

“…once they have entered puberty.”:
Stroud 2004.

“…stress responsivity in the hippocampus of females.”:
Taylor 2006; Young 2006 personal communication; Viau 2004, 2005, 2006 personal communication; Agrati 2005; Putnam 2005; Shors 2006.

“…creation of protective social networks.”:
Taylor 2000, 2006; Kudielka 2005; Klein 2002; Stroud 2002; Bebbington 1996.

“…She hates relationship conflict.”:
Kiecolt-Glaser 1996, 1998.

“…triggered by social rejection.”:
Stroud 2002.

“…social stress on a weekly basis.”:
Morgan 2004; Kirschbaum 1999; Kudielka 1999.

“…react with increased irritability”:
Kudielka 2004, 2005.

“…to the stress hormone cortisol.”:
Stephen 2006; Cooke 2005; Mowlavi 2005; Morgan 2004; Rose 2004; Roca 2003; Berkley 2002; Young 1995, 2002; Cyranowski 2000; Kirschbaum 1999; Altemus 1997; Keller-Wood 1988.

“…for talking, flirting, and socializing.”:
Matthews 2005; Salonia 2005; Uvnäs-Moberg 2005; Cameron 2004; Ferguson 2001; Giedd 1999; Paus 1999; Turner 1999; Gangestad 1998; De Wied 1997; Slob 1996; Alexander 1990; Cohen 1987.

“…vocabularies than do boys.”:
Hyde 1988.

“…in a social setting.”:
Tannen 1990.

“…weeks without vocalizing at all.”:
Wallen 2005.

“…and downs and stresses of life.”:
Rose 2006; Maccoby 1998; Dunbar 1996.

“…increases dopamine and oxytocin production in girls.”:
Forger 2004, 2006; Dluzen 2005; Walker 2000.

“…is triggered by intimacy.”:
Uvnäs-Moberg 2005; Turner 1999; Whitcher 1979.

“…reinforcement for social bonding.”:
Depue 2005; Johns 2004; Jones 2004; Motzer 2004; Heinrichs 2003; Martel 1993.

“…her urge for intimacy is also peaking.”:
Uvnäs-Moberg 2005.

“…involves sports or sexual pursuit.”:
Pennebaker 2004; Rowe 2004; Sanchez-Martin 2000.

“…especially true in the teenage female brain.”:
Jasnow 2006; Bertolino 2005; Hamann 2005; Huber 2005; Pezawas 2005; Sabatinelli 2005; Viau 2005; Wilson 2005; Phelps 2004.

“…rejection than does the male brain.”:
Ochsner 2004; Levesque 2003; Zubieta 2003.

“…a positive boost from it.”:
Maccoby 1998.

“…her friend will be their last.”:
Kiecolt-Glaser 1996, 1998.

“…hormone cortisol takes over.”:
Kudielka 2005; Stroud 2002, 2004; Klein 2002; Bebbington 1996.

“…intimate relationships with others.”:
Mackie 2000; Josephs 1992.

“…formation of cliques and clubs.”:
Jasnow 2006; Rose 2006.

“…described by W. B. Cannon in 1932.”:
Cannon 1932.

“…male response to threat and stress.”:
Taylor 2006, 2000.

“…the demands of an imminent threat.”:
Sapolsky 1986, 2000.

“…brain areas for physical action.”:
Campbell 2005; O’Connor 2004; Collaer 1995; Olweus 1988; Hyde 1984.

“…once they’ve formed maternal bonds.”:
Keverne 1999; Mendoza 1999.

“…networks that may aid in this process.”:
Taylor 2000.

“…him away with threatening cries.”:
Dunbar 1996.

“…maternal behavior for younger females.”:
Silk 2000; Wrangham 1980.

“…success at passing on their genes.”:
Silk 2003.

“…clock cells in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.”:
Toussan 2004.

“…brain cells that control breathing.”:
Behan 2005.

“…and more sleeping time overall.”:
Roenneberg 2004.

“…of all their brain circuits.”:
Campbell 2005.

“…that will last until after menopause.”:
Roenneberg 2004.

“…think more quickly and more agilely.”:
Monnet 2006; Routtenberg 2005; Uysal 2005.

“…progesterone in the last two weeks.”:
Kuhlmann 2005; Routtenberg 2005; Sa 2005; Cameron 1997, 2004; Weissman 2002; Woolley 1996.

“…momentarily upset, stressed, and irritable.”:
Kajantie 2006; Goldstein 2005; Protopopescu 2005; Kirschbaum 1999; Tersman 1991.

“…right before their periods begin.”:
Birzniece 2006; Kuhlmann 2005; Rubinow 1995.

“…week two—of their cycles.”:
Birzniece 2006; Sherwin 1994; Phillips 1992.

“…spectrum of discomfort as a seizure.”:
Smith 2004.

“…before the onset of bleeding.”:
Altemus 2006; Mellon 2004, 2006; Schmidt 1998.

“…maximal hormone withdrawal.”:
Jovanovic 2004; Toufexis 2004.

“…extremely edgy and easily upset.”:
Parry 2002.

“…have fewer serotonin brain cells.”:
Bethea 2005; Zhang 2005; Cameron 2000; Williams 1997.

“…crying and rage can plague them.”:
Bennett 2005; Lu 2002; Cyranowski 2000; Young 1995. (Drugs such as Prozac, Zoloft, and other antidepressants lift the brain’s mood chemicals, including serotonin.)
“…and from week to week.”:
Goldstein 2005; Protopopescu 2005; Arnsten 2004; Korol 2004; Bowman 2002.

“…premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD).”:
Klatzkin 2006.

“…calming right before the period starts.”:
Smith 2004; Silberstein 2000.

“…and progesterone during the cycle.”:
Roca 1998, 2003; Schmidt 1998.

“…removing the ovaries surgically.”:
Parry 2002.

“…that were upsetting her brain.”:
Joffe 2006 personal communication; Kirschbaum 1999.

“…her serotonin levels stabilized.”:
Kurshan 2006; Griffin 1999; Kirschbaum 1999; Tuiten 1995.

“…mood and sense of well-being.”:
Freeman 2004; Luisi 2003.

“…highly responsive at puberty.”:
Arnsten 2004; Smith 2004; Toufexis 2004.

“…thin and immature.”:
Giedd 2005 personal communication.

“…often becomes overwhelmed.”:
See Chapter 6, “Emotion.”

“…function reliably under stress.”:
Giedd 2005.

“…impulsive time for many girls.”:
Arnsten 2004; Young 2004.

“…event feel like a catastrophe.”:
Arnsten 2004.

“…amygdala can prove difficult.”:
Arnsten 2004.

“…when they’re under stress.”:
Genazzani 2005; Dobson 2003.

“…ratio for depression doubles.”:
Staley 2006; Weissman 1993, 2000, 2005; Blehar 2003; Mazure 2003; Maciejewski 2001; Kendler 2000.

“…to suffer from depression.”:
Weissman 1999, 2002; Hayward 2002; Born 2002.

“…role in female depression.”:
Muller 2002.

“…higher risk for clinical depression.”:
Zubenko 2002.

“…pivotal—among teenage girls.”:
Archer 2005; Fry 1992; Burbank 1987.

“…that among teen boys.”:
Campbell 2005, 1995.

“…rumors to undermine a rival.”:
Holmstrom 1992; Eagly 1986.

“…and females are androgens.”:
Carter 2003.

“…and twenty-one in males.”:
Vermeulen 1995.

“…have sexual intercourse earlier.”:
Netherton 2004; Halpern 1997.

“…over boys and other girls.”:
Dreher 2005; Pinna 2005; Weiner 2004; Bond 2001; Udry 1977.

“…levels in women and teens.”:
Underwood 2003.

“…estrogen, testosterone, and androstenedione.”:
Cashdan 1995, Schultheiss 2003.

THREE: L
OVE AND
T
RUST

“…brains’ love-drive by evolution.”:
Rhodes 2005, 2006; Brown 2005.

“…hormone that stokes sexual desire.”:
Fisher 2005; see Chapter 4, “Sex.”

“…try to hook up with her.”:
Emanuele 2006.

“…help our offspring survive.”:
Buss 1993.

“…as neurological love circuits.”:
Esch 2005.

“…engineering of the human mind.”:
Fisher 2005; Aron 2005.

“…evolutionary psychologist David Buss.”:
Buss 1990.

“…a savvy investment strategy.”:
Trivers 1972.

“…triples children’s survival rate.”:
Hill 1988.

“…shelter, and other resources.”:
Carter 2004; Reno 2003.

“…loved and worshiped her back.”:
Botwin 1997.

“…curvy, hourglass figures.”:
Schutzwohl 2006; Singh 1993, 2002.

“…females to have sex with.”:
Schmitt 1996.

“…visual clues to their fertility.”:
Singh 2002.

“…narrower than their hips.”:
Singh 2002.

“…in size to their hips.”:
Singh 1993.

“…pregnancy radically alters her silhouette.”:
Singh 1993.

“…still turned on full force.”:
Carter 1998; see Chapter 6, “Emotion.”

“…when looking for a mate.”:
Haselton 2005.

“…trustworthy than they really are.”:
Buss 1995; Tooke 1991.

“…to agree to have sex.”:
Haselton 2005.

“…play earlier than boys.”:
Maccoby 1998.

“…eye gaze, and facial expressions.”:
See Chapter 6, “Emotion.”

“…sexual behavior as is the male.”:
Carter 1997; Kanin 1970.

“…and months of a relationship.”:
Hrdy 1997.

“…high-level visual processing areas.”:
Aron 2005; Brown 2005; Brown 2005 personal communication; see Chapter 6, “Emotion.”