Spain: A Unique History (53 page)

7. For the relations between Franco and Hitler, see R. H. Whealey,
Hitler and Spain: The Nazi Role in the Spanish Civil War
(Lexington, Ky., 1989); Payne,
Franco and Hitler
; D. W. Pike,
Franco and the Axis Stigma
(New York, 2008); X. Moreno Juliá,
Hitler y Franco: Diplomacia en tiempos de guerra
(1936-2945) (Barcelona, 2007); and M. Ros Agudo,
La guerra secreta de Franco (1939-1945)
(Barcelona, 2002), and
La gran tentación: Franco, el Imperio colonial y los planes de intervención en la Segunda Guerra Mundial
(Barcelona, 2007). The best general account of Spanish diplomacy is still J. Tusell,
Franco, España y la II Guerra Mundial: Entre el Eje y la neutralidad
(Madrid, 1995)

For accounts favorable to Franco, see L. Suárez Fernández,
España, Franco y la Segunda Guerra Mundial desde 1939 hasta 1945
(Madrid, 1997), and P. Moa,
Años de hierro: España en la posguerra 1939-1945
(Madrid, 2007).

8. Frank, "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War."

9. J. McLellan,
Antifascism and Memory in East Germany: Remembering the International Brigades
(Oxford, 2004); A. Krammer, "The Cult of the Spanish Civil War in East Germany," J
ournal of Contemporary History
39.4 (October 2004): 531-60.

10. For a somewhat different speculation concerning the consequences of a Republican victory, see I. Saz, "La victoria de la República en la Guerra Civil y la Europa de 1939," in J. M. Thomàs, ed.,
La historia de España que no pudo ser
(Barcelona, 2007), 83-106.

11. E. Sáenz-Francés,
Entre la Antorcha y la Esvástica: Franco en la encrucijada de la Segunda Guerra Mundial
(Madrid, 2009), concentrates on the events of 1942-43.

1. In addition there was a fascist government in Hungary from December 1944 to the end of the war, and another in Croatia in the form of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) from 1941 to 1944. These governments, however, did not achieve power by themselves but were imposed by Hitler. On the NDH, see the special issue of
Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions
7.4 (December 2006), edited by Sabrina Ramet.

2. Payne,
A History of Fascism
, 487-95. A retrodictive theory is an attempt to postulate the conditions that were required in a certain historical era for a certain kind of development to have taken place, in other words, what would have been necessary to have made a positive prediction in the past.

3. Araquistain's remarks appeared in his article in the New York journal
Foreign Affairs
in April 1934, and those of Maurín approximately a year later in his book
Hacia la segunda revolución
(Barcelona, 1935).

4. This sentiment is most dramatically expressed by the outpouring of activities and new publications of "Plataforma 2003," an association funded by Primo de Rivera's admirers to commemorate the centenary of his birth, with all funds raised from their own pockets.

The two best books on José Antonio are J. Gil Pecharromán,
José Antonio Primo de Rivera: Retrato de un visionario
(Madrid, 1996), the best critical scholarly account; and A. Imatz,
José Antonio: Entre odio y amor
(Madrid, 2006), also very well informed and more favorable to its subject. For a pro-and-con approach, see E. Aguinaga and S. G. Payne,
José Antonio Primo de Rivera
(Barcelona, 2003).

5. The best argument is presented in Imatz,
José Antonio
. In this regard, the definition of fascism is fundamental. Except in the case of the Italian National Fascist Party and a few extremely insignificant organizations that formally proclaimed themselves "fascist," the term was not officially adopted by other parties of similar characteristics. As used by scholars and historians, the term does not refer to a single unified or reified entity but is employed as a generic political reference in the same way as socialist, communist, and other broadly employed adjectives. The concept of generic fascism is used as a heuristic device to refer to an ideal type or construct in the social sciences that groups together a series of political movements, primarily found in interwar Europe, possessing key common characteristics. Among these are authoritarian political structure and goals, charismatic leadership, extreme nationalism, zeal for imperial expansion, the militarization of politics, creation of a "new man" based on a radical new culture of vitalism and dynamism, antimaterialism, idealization of violence and militarization, and the development of an authoritarian national economic structure, whether national socialism or corporatism. I have treated this at some length in my books
Fascism: Comparison and Definition
(Madison, 1980) and
A History of Fascism
, and will not repeat the discussion here. Nearly all these basic components of fascism are found in the doctrines of José Antonio.

6. The best studies are those of F. Gallego:
Ramiro Ledesma Ramos y el fascismo Español
(Madrid, 2005) and the long study in the volume that he coedited with F. Morente,
Fascismo en España
(Madrid, 2005). L. Casali,
Società di massa, giovani, rivoluzione: Il fascismo di Ramiro Ledesma Ramos
(Turin, 2002), is also recommendable. The
Obras completas
of Ledesma were published in four volumes in 2004.

7. R. Ledesma Ramos,
¿Fascismo en España?
(Madrid, 1935), 21-22.

8. M. Primo de Rivera, ed.,
Papeles póstumos de José Antonio
(Barcelona, 1996).

9. I. Saz,
Fascismo y franquismo
(Valencia, 2004).

10. Falangist dissidence would also generate its own historiography after the end of the regime.

11. The text is from L. López Rodó,
La larga marcha hacia la monarquía
(Barcelona, 1978), 30-31.

12. Cited in López Rodó,
Política y desarrollo
(Madrid, 1970),18-19.

13. Fundacion Nacional Francisco Franco,
Documentos inéditos del régimen del Generalísimo Franco
(Madrid, 1994), 2:143-44.

14. R. Serrano Súñer,
La historia como fue: Memorias
(Barcelona, 1977), 198.

1. The bibliography is, of course, very great. The best one is P. Preston,
Franco: A Biography
(London, 1993), and the most thorough pro-Franco treatment is R. de la Cierva,
Franco: La historia
(Madrid, 2000).

2. The best treatment of Franco's early years is B. Bennassar,
Franco: Enfance et adolescence
(Paris, 1999).

3. The best analysis of Franco's political leadership during the Civil War is J. Tusell,
Franco en la Guerra Civil
(Barcelona, 1992).

4. J. A. Vaca de Osma,
La larga guerra de Francisco Franco
(Madrid, 1991); C. Blanco Escoli,
La incompetencia militar de Franco
(Barcelona, 1999); J. Semprún,
El genio militar de Franco
(Madrid, 2000). The best evaluation, however, is J. Blázquez Miguel,
Auténtico Franco: Trayectoria militar, 1907-1939
(Madrid, 2009).

5. M. Seidman,
The Victorious Counterrevolution
(Madison, 2011), is the first complete study of Franco's eminently successful mobilization of domestic resources.

6. Fundación Nacional Francisco Franco,
Documentos inéditos Para la historia del Generalísimo Franco
, 2:1, 380-81.

7. This is best rendered in D. W. Pike,
Franco and the Axis Stigma
(New York, 2008).

1. The leading one-volume account is C. Seco Serrano,
Militarismo y civilismo en la España contemporánea
(Madrid, 1984), which updated my earlier
Politics and the Military in Modern Spain
(Stanford, 1967).

2. The role of the military in the first part of the reign of Fernando VII is examined in R. L. Blanco Valdés,
Rey, Cortes y fuerza armada en los orígenes de la España liberal, 1808-1823
(Madrid, 1988).

3. For a brief listing of all these and later initiatives, see J. Busquets,
Pronunciamientos y golpes de Estado en España
(Barcelona, 1982).

4. For the later nineteenth century, see D. R. Headrick,
Ejército y política en España (1866-1898)
(Madrid, 1981).

5. Prior to the Civil War of 1936 there was no separate air force, aerial units being formed as the army air force and the naval air force.

6. R. Núñez Florencio,
Militarismo y antimilitarismo en España (1888-1906)
(Madrid, 1990).

7. For this era, see C. P. Boyd,
Praetorian Politics in Liberal Spain
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1979).

8. C. Navajas Zubeldia,
Ejército, Estado y sociedad en España (1923-1930)
(Logroño,1991).

9. M. Aguilar Olivencia,
El Ejército Español durante la Segunda República
(Madrid, 1986).

10. S. Juliá, " ¿Qué habría pasado si Indalecio Prieto hubiera aceptado la presidencia del Gobierno en mayo de 1936? " in N. Townson, ed., Historia virtual de España (1874-2004)
¿Que hubiera pasado si ... ?
(Madrid, 2004), 175-200.

11. On the military conspiracy and the insurgency that began the Civil War, see J. M. Martínez Bande,
Los años críticos: República, conspiración y alzamiento
(Madrid, 2007), 189-451.

12. Quoted in N. Goda,
Tomorrow the World: Hitler, Northwest Africa, and the Path toward America
(College Station, Tex., 1998), 59.

13. D. Smyth, "Les chevaliers de Saint-Georges: La Grande Bretagne et la corruption des généraux espagnols,"
Guerres Mondiales
162 (1991): 29-54; see also D. Stafford,
Roosevelt and Churchill: Men of Secrets
(London, 1999), 78-110.

14. E. San Román,
Ejército e industria: El nacimiento de INI
(Barcelona, 1999).

15. J. Tusell and G. G. Queipo de Llano,
Carrero: La eminencia gris del régimen de Franco
(Madrid, 1993).

16. J. Tusell, Franco,
España y la II Guerra Mundial: Entre el Eje y la neutralidad
(Madrid, 1995), 309.

17. Eugenio Vegas Latapié first provided me with the text of this document in 1963.

18. J. A. Olmeda Gómez,
Las fuerzas armadas en el Estado franquista: Participación política, infuencia presupuestaria y profesionalización, 1939-1975
(Madrid, 1988), treats the institutional functioning of the military under the regime.

19. C. Fernández,
Los militares en la transición política
(Barcelona, 1982), treats the role of the military during the first five years of the Transition.

20. The literature on the "23-F" is very extensive. See especially J. Palacios,
23-F: El golpe del CESID
(Barcelona, 2oo1), and A. Martínez Inglés,
23-F: El golpe que nunca existió
(Madrid, 2001).

21. J. M. Comas and L. Mandeville,
Les militaires et le pouvoir dons l'Espagne contemporaine de Franco à Felipe González
(Toulouse, 1986).

22. I. Martínez Inglés,
El Ejército Español: De poder fáctico a "ONG humanitaria"
(Arrigorriaga, 2004), presents a critical survey of these changes.

1. M. Bauerlein,
The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future
(New York, 2008), presents a sustained critique as applied to the United States, home of the digital revolution.

2. For a discussion of this, see J. Lukacs,
At the End of an Age
(New Haven, Conn., 2002), 45-83.

3. The best single account that summarizes this broad politico-historiographical controversy is S. Balfour and A. Quiroga,
España reinventada: Nación e identidad desde la Transición
(Barcelona, 2007). "To reinvent" is, of course, a standard cliché of postmodernist theory.

4. There is a very extensive literature dealing with the processes that subsequently ensued. The most recent set of studies, which contains full bibliographic references, is A. M. Khazanov and S. G. Payne, eds., "Perpetrators, Accomplices and Victims in Twentieth and Twenty-First Century Narratives and Politics," a special double issue of
Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions
9.2-3 (June-September 2008). This volume is also published in book form by Routledge:
Perpetrators, Accomplices and Victims in Twentieth-century Politics: Reckoning with the Past
(2009).

5. L. La Rovere,
L'ereditá del fascismo: Gli intellettuali i giovani e la transizione al post-fascismo, 1943-1948
(Torino, 2008).

6. See A. Costa Pinto, "The Legacy of the Authoritarian Past in Portugal's Democratisation, 1974-6," in Khazanov and Payne,
Perpetrators, Accomplices and Victims
, 265-89, and "Political Purges and State Crisis in Portugal's Transition to Democracy, 1975-76,"
Journal of Contemporary History
43.2 (April 2008): 305-32.

7. There were of course a number of short-term and noninstitutionalized authoritarian regimes during the early twentieth century that simply collapsed or were leveraged from power by political means, but all these had been in power for less than a decade.

8. The best discussion of the Transition and of these ideas as they relate to the history of the Civil War and the Transition is G. Ranzato,
El pasado de bronce: La herencia de la Guerra Civil en la España Democrática
(Barcelona, 2007).

9. P. Aguilar,
Políticas de la memoria y memorias de la política: El caso Español en perspectiva comparada
(Madrid, 2008), 70.

10. These points have been made by some of the country's leading figures in contemporary history, such as S. Juliá, "Echar al olvido: Memoria y amnistía en la transición,"
Claves de Razón Práctica
159 (2003): 14-24; and the late J. Tusell, "La historia y la Transición,"
Clío: Journal of Literature, History, and the History of Philosophy
(November 2002): 18.

11. J. M. Solé Sabaté,
La repressió franquista a Catalunya (1938-1953)
(Barcelona, 1985); J. M. Solé Sabaté and J. Villarroya i Font,
La repressió a la reraguarda de Catalunya (1936' 1939)
, 2 vols. (Barcelona, 1989-90); V. Gabarda Cebellán,
Els afusellaments al País Valencià (1938-1956)
(Valencia, 1993), and
La represión en la retaguardia republicana: País Valenciano, 1936-1939
(Valencia, 1996); F. Alía Miranda,
La guerra civil en retaguardia: Conflicto y revolucion en la provincia de Ciudad Real, 1936-1939
(Ciudad Real, 1994).