Fields of Blood (78 page)

35.
Doniger,
Hindus,
pp. 143–47.

36.
Reinard Bendix,
Kings or People: Power and the Mandate to Rule
(Berkeley, CA, 1977), p. 228.

37.
Max Weber,
The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism,
trans and ed. Hans H. Gerth and Don Martindale (Glencoe, IL, 1951), p. 65.

38.
Alfred Vagts,
History of Militarism: Civilian and Military,
rev. ed. (New York, 1959), p. 42.

39.
Pancavimsha Brahmana (PB) 7:7:9–10, cited in Weber,
The Religion of India,
p. 62.

40.
SB 6:8:14; Heesterman “Ritual, Revelation,” p. 402.

41.
Heesterman,
Inner Conflict of Tradition,
pp. 68, 84–85.

42.
Rig Veda I.132:20–21, Griffiths translation.

43.
Taittiriya Samhita (TS) 6.4.8.1, in Heesterman,
Inner Conflict of Tradition,
p. 209.

44.
Taittiriya Brahmana (TB) 3:7:7:14, in Heesterman,
Broken World,
p. 34.

45.
Witzel, “Vedas and Upanisads,” p. 82.

46.
TB 10:6:5:8, in Heesterman,
Broken World,
p. 34.

47.
Zaehner,
Hinduism,
pp. 59–60; Renou,
Religions of Ancient India,
p. 18; Witzel, “Vedas and Upanisads,” p. 81; Brian K. Smith,
Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion
(Oxford and New York, 1989), pp. 30–34, 72–81.

48.
Jonathan Z. Smith, “The Bare Facts of Ritual,” in Smith,
Imagining Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown
(Chicago and London, 1982), p. 63.

49.
Doniger,
Hindus,
pp. 137–42; Gavin Flood,
An Introduction to Hinduism
(Oxford, 2003), pp. 80–81.

50.
Thapar,
Early India,
pp. 150–52.

51.
The Laws of Manu,
7:16–22, trans. George Buhler (Delhi, 1962).

52.
Thapar,
Early India,
pp. 147–49; Doniger,
Hindus,
pp. 165–66.

53.
Thapar,
Early India,
p. 138.

54.
Hermann Kulke, “The Historical Background of India’s Axial Age,” in Eisenstadt,
Origins and Diversity,
p. 385.

55.
Thapar,
Early India,
p. 154.

56.
Gautama Dharmasutra 16:46; Richard Gombrich,
Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo
(London and New York, 1988), p. 55.

57.
Gombrich,
Theravada Buddhism,
pp. 58–59; William M. McNeill,
Plagues and Peoples
(Garden City, NY, 1976), p. 60;
The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation,
ed. and trans. Patrick Olivelle (New York and Oxford, 1992), p. 34; Doniger,
Hindus,
p. 171.

58.
Thomas J. Hopkins,
The Hindu Religious Tradition
(Belmont, CA, 1971), pp. 50–51; Doniger,
Hindus,
p. 165.

59.
Chandogya Upanishad (CU) 5:10:7. Quotations from the
Upanishads
are from
Upanisads,
trans. Patrick Olivelle (Oxford and New York, 1996). Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (BU) 4:4:23–35; Thapur,
Early India,
p. 130.

60.
Olivelle,
Samnyasa Upanisads,
pp. 37–38.

61.
Ibid., p. xxix; Witzel, “Vedas and Upanisads,” pp. 85–86.

62.
BU 1:4:6.

63.
BU 1:4:10.

64.
BU 4:4:5–7.

65.
BU 4:4:23–35.

66.
CU 8:7–12.

67.
CU 6:11.

68.
CU 6:12.

69.
CU 6:13.

70.
CU 6:10.

71.
Thapar,
Early India,
p. 132.

72.
Flood,
Introduction to Hinduism,
p. 91; Patrick Olivelle, “The Renouncer Tradition,” in Flood,
Blackwell Companion to Hinduism,
p. 271.

73.
Steven Collins,
Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism
(Cambridge, UK, 1982), p. 64; Paul Dundas,
The Jains,
2nd ed. (London and New York, 2002), p. 64.

74.
Manara Gryha Sutra 1:1:6, in Heesterman,
Broken World,
pp. 164–74; Gonda,
Change and Continuity,
pp. 228–35, 285–94.

75.
Gonda,
Change and Continuity,
pp. 380–84; Olivelle, “Renouncer Tradition,” pp. 281–82.

76.
Digha Nikaya, in
Samnyasa Upanisads,
trans. Olivelle, p. 43.

77.
Naradaparivrajaka Upanisad 143, ibid., pp. 108, 185.

78.
A. Ghosh,
The City in Early Historical India
(Simla, 1973), p. 55;
Samnyasa Upanisads,
trans. Olivelle, pp. 45–46.

79.
Mircea Eliade,
Yoga: Immortality and Freedom,
trans. Willard R. Trask (London, 1958), pp. 59–62.

80.
Patanjali,
Yoga Sutras
2:42, ibid., p. 52.

81.
Dundas,
Jains,
pp. 28–30.

82.
Ibid., pp. 106–7.

83.
Acaranga Sutra (AS) 1.4.1.1–2, ibid., pp. 41–42.

84.
AS 1:2:3, ibid.

85.
Avashyaksutra 32, ibid., p. 171.

86.
Western scholars once thought that the
Buddha was born c. 563 BCE, but recent scholarship indicates that he lived about a century later. Heinz Berchant, “The Date of the Buddha Reconsidered,”
Indologia Taurinensin
10 (n.d.).

87.
Majjhima Nikaya (MN) 38. Unless otherwise stated, all quotations from the Buddhist scriptures are my own versions of the texts cited.

88.
I have described the Buddha’s spiritual method more fully in
Buddha
(New York, 2001). See also Richard F. Gombrich,
How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings
(London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1996); Michael Carrithers,
The Buddha
(Oxford and New York, 1993); Karl Jaspers,
The Great Philosophers: The Foundations,
ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Ralph Manheim (London, 1962), pp. 99–105; Trevor Ling,
The Buddha: Buddhist Civilization in India and Ceylon
(London, 1973).

89.
Edward Conze,
Buddhism: Its Essence and Development
(Oxford, 1951), p. 102; Hermann Oldenberg,
Buddha: His Life, His Doctrine, His Order,
trans. William Hoeg (London, 1882), pp. 299–302.

90.
Sutta Nipata (SN) 118, my translation.

91.
Vinaya,
Mahavagga
1:ii, in Ling,
The Buddha,
p. 134.

92.
Ibid. 1:211.

93.
AG 1:27; SN 700, in Bhikkhu Nānamoli, ed.,
The Life of the Buddha, According to the Pali Canon
(Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1992), p. 282.

94.
MN 89, ibid.

95.
Thapar,
Early India,
pp. 174–98.

96.
Patrick Olivelle, ed.,
Asoka: In History and Historical Memory
(Delhi, 2009), p. 1.

97.
Major Rock Edict 13, in
Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas,
trans. Romila Thapar (Oxford, 1961), pp. 255–56.

98.
Ibid.

99.
Olivelle,
Asoka,
p. 1.

100.
Pillar Edict VII, in Thapar,
Asoka,
p. 255.

101.
Major Rock Edict 12, ibid., p. 255.

102.
Major Rock Edict 11, ibid., p. 254.

103.
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy and Sister Nivedita,
Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists
(New York, 1967), p. 118.

104.
Shruti Kapila and Faisal Devji, eds.,
Political Thought in Action: The Bhagavad Gita and Modern India
(Cambridge, UK, 2013).

105.
Doniger,
Hindus,
pp. 262–64.

106.
Thapar,
Early India,
p. 207.

107.
Mahabharata
7:70:44, in
The Mahabharata, Volume 3: Book 4: The Book of Virata; Book 5: The Book of the Effort,
trans. and ed. J. A. B. van Buitenen (Chicago and London, 1978).

108.
Mahabharata
5:70:46–66, ibid.

109.
Mahabharata
7:165:63, ibid.

110.
Mahabharata
9:60:59–63, in
The Mahabharata: An Abridged Translation,
trans. and ed. John D. Smith (London, 2009).

111.
Mahabharata
10:8:39, ibid.

112.
Mahabharata
10:10:14, ibid.

113.
Mahabharata
12:15, in Doniger,
Hindus,
p. 270.

114.
Mahabharata
17:3, ibid.

115.
Bhagavad-Gita
1:33–34, 36–37. All quotations are from
The Bhagavad-Gita: Krishna’s Counsel in Time of War,
trans. Barbara Stoller Milller (New York, Toronto, and London, 1986).

116.
Bhagavad-Gita
2:9.

117.
Bhagavad-Gita
4:20.

118.
Bhagavad-Gita
9:9.

119.
Bhagavad-Gita
11:32–33.

120.
Bhagavad-Gita
11:55.

1.
Liezi jishi
2, in Mark Edward Lewis,
Sanctioned Violence in Early China
(Albany, NY, 1990), pp. 200, 167–72.

2.
Ibid., pp. 176–79.

3.
Marcel Granet,
Chinese Civilization,
trans. Kathleen Innes and Mabel Brailsford (London and New York, 1951), pp. 11–12; Granet,
The Religion of the Chinese People,
trans. and ed. Maurice Freedman (Oxford, 1975), pp. 66–68.

4.
Taijong yulan
79, in Lewis,
Sanctioned Violence,
p. 203.

5.
Ibid., pp. 203, 201.

6.
Granet,
Chinese Civilization,
pp. 11–16; Henri Maspero,
China in Antiquity,
trans. Frank A Kiermannn Jr., 2nd ed. (Folkestone, 1978), pp. 115–19.

7.
John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman,
China: A New History,
2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2006), p. 34.

8.
Jacques Gernet,
A History of Chinese Civilization,
trans. J. R. Foster and Charles Hartman, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, UK, and New York, 1996), pp. 39–40.

9.
Ibid., pp. 41–50; Jacques Gernet,
Ancient China: From the Beginnings to the Empire,
trans. Raymond Rudorff (London, 1968), pp. 37–65; William Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom, eds. and trans.,
Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600
, 2nd ed.(New York, 1999), pp. 3–25; D. Howard Smith,
Chinese Religions
(London, 1968), pp. 1–11.

10.
Gernet,
History of Chinese Civilization,
pp. 45–46; Gernet,
Ancient China,
pp. 50–53; Granet,
Religion of the Chinese People,
pp. 37–54.

11.
The Book of Songs,
35, 167, 185.

12.
Sima Qian,
Records of a Master Historian,
1:56:79, cited in Granet,
Chinese Civilization,
p. 12.

13.
Gernet,
History of Chinese Civilization,
p. 49.

14.
Marshall G. S. Hodgson,
The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization,
3 vols. (Chicago and London, 1974), 1:281–82.

15.
Lewis,
Sanctioned Violence,
pp. 15–27; Fairbank and Goldman,
China,
pp. 49–50.

16.
Fairbank and Goldman,
China,
p. 45.

17.
K. C. Chang,
Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China
(Cambridge, MA, 1985), pp. 95–100; Fairbank and Goldman,
China,
pp. 42–44.

18.
Walter Burkert,
Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth,
trans. Walter Bing (Berkeley, CA, 1983), p. 47.

19.
David N. Keightley, “The Late Shang State: When, Where, What?” in Keightley, ed.,
The Origins of Chinese Civilization
(Berkeley, CA, 1983), pp. 256–59.

20.
Michael J. Puett,
To Become a God: Cosmology, Sacrifice, and Self-Divinization in Early China
(Cambridge, MA, and London, 2002), pp. 32–76.

21.
Oracle 23, in
Sources of Chinese Tradition,
trans. De Bary and Bloom, p. 12.

22.
Lewis,
Sanctioned Violence,
pp. 26–27.

23.
The Book of Mozi
3.25, cited in Gernet,
Ancient China,
p. 65.

24.
Classic of Documents,
“The Shao Announcement,” in
Sources of Chinese Tradition,
trans. De Bary and Bloom, pp. 35–37.

25.
H. G. Creel,
Confucius: The Man and the Myth
(London, 1951), pp. 19–25; Benjamin I. Schwarz,
The World of Thought in Ancient China
(Cambridge, MA, and London, 1985), pp. 57–59; remarks by Jacques Gernet in Jean-Pierre Vernant,
Myth and Society in Ancient Greece,
trans. Janet Lloyd, 3rd ed. (New York, 1996), pp. 80–90.

26.
Gernet,
Ancient China,
pp. 71–75.

27.
Granet,
Chinese Civilization,
pp. 97–100.

28.
Fung Yu-lan,
A Short History of Chinese Philosophy,
trans. Derk Bodde (New York, 1978), pp. 32–37.