Delphi Complete Works of George Eliot (Illustrated) (706 page)
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* Compare Luke i. 47 wi:li 1 Sam. ii. 1.Particularly Luke i. 4S with 1 Sam, i. 11.
i. 41) ii. 2. Compare Luke i. ,’iO with l)>‘ut. vii. 9.
i. .’»1 ii. 3, -1-. i. •”>^Erclesiasticua x. 14.
i- .”>2 ii. 8. i. fUP^a. xcviii. 3.
VISIT OF MART TO ELIZABETH.
occur, but as they might have occurred; that much which the sequel taught of the destiny of tlieir sons was carried back into the speeches of these women, which were also enriched by other features gleaned from tradition; tliat a true fact however lies at the bottom, namely an actual visit of Mary to Elizabeth, a joyous conversation, and the expression of gratitude to God; all which might have happened.
solely in virtue of tlie high importance attaclicd by Orientals to the joys of maternity, even though tlic two mothers had been at tliat time ignorant of tlie destination of tlieir children. This author is of opinion that Mary, when pondering over at a later period the remarkable life of her son, may often have related the happy meeting With her cousin and their mutual expressions of thankfulness to God, and tliat thus tlie history gained currency. Horst also, who has a just conception of the fictitious nature of this section in Luke, and ably refutes tlic natural mode of explanation, yet himself slides unawares half-way back into it. He thinks it not improbable that Mary during her pregnancy, which was in many respects a painful one, should liave visited her older and more experienced cousin, and tliat Elizabeth sliould during tills visit have felt the first movement of lier child; ah occurrence which as it was afterwards regarded as ominous, was preserved by the oral tradition.*
These are farther examples of the uncritical proceeding which pretends to disengage tlie mythical and poetical from tlie narrative, by plucking away a few twigs and blossoms of tliat growth, whilst it leaves tlic very root of tlie mythus undisturbed as purely historical.
In our narrative tlie principal mythical feature (the remainder forms only its adjuncts) is precisely tliat which the above mentioned authors, in tlieir pretended mythical explanations, retain as historical : namely tlie visit of Mary to the, pregnant Elizabeth.
For, as we have already seen, tlic main tendency of tlie first cliapter of Luke is to magnify Jesus by connecting tlie Baptist with him from the earliest possible point in a relation of inferiority. Now this object could not be better attained than by brinc’ln”‘ about a meetin”“, not
In our narrative tlie principal mythical feature (the remainder forms only its adjuncts) is precisely tliat which the above mentioned authors, in tlieir pretended mythical explanations, retain as historical : namely tlie visit of Mary to the, pregnant Elizabeth.
For, as we have already seen, tlic main tendency of tlie first cliapter of Luke is to magnify Jesus by connecting tlie Baptist with him from the earliest possible point in a relation of inferiority. Now this object could not be better attained than by brinc’ln”‘ about a meetin”“, not
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in tlie first instance of tlic sons, but of the mothers in reference to tlieir sons, during tlieir pregnancy, at. wliicli meeting some occurrence which should prefigure the future relative positions of these two men sliould take place. Now tlie more apparent tlie existence ot a dogmatical motive as the origin of this visit, tlie less probability is there tliat it liad an liistorical foundation. With this principal feature the other details are connected in the following order:Tlie visit of tlie two w^n.cn must be represented as possible and probable by tlie feature of family relationship between Mary and Elizabeth (v. 36.), which would also give a greater suitability to the subsequent connexion of tlie sons.
Further a visit, so full of import, made precisely at tliat time, must liave taken place by special divine appointment; therefore, it is an angel who refers Mary to her cousin. At tlic visit the subservient position of the Baptist to Jesus
Further a visit, so full of import, made precisely at tliat time, must liave taken place by special divine appointment; therefore, it is an angel who refers Mary to her cousin. At tlic visit the subservient position of the Baptist to Jesus
THE LIFE OF JESCS.
is to be particularly exhibited;-this could have been effected by the mother as indeed it is in her address to Mary, but it were better if possible tliat the future Baptist himself should give a sign. The mutual relation of Esau and Jacob liad been prefigured by their struggles and position in their mother’s womb. (Gen. xxv. 22. ft.)
But, without too violent an offence against the laws of probability an ominous movement would not be attributed to the cliild prior to tliat period of her pregnancy at which tlie motion of tlie foetus is felt; hence the necessity that Elizabeth should be in the sixth month of her pregnancy when Mary, in consequence of tlie communication of tlie angel, set out to visit her cousin (v. 36.). Thus as Schleiermacher remarks* tlie whole arrangemept of times had reference to tlie particular circumstance tlie author desired to contrivetlie jovous responsive movement of the cliild in his mother’s womb at the moment of Mary’s entrance. To this end only must Mary’s visit be delayed till after tlio fifth month; and tlie angel not appear to her before that period.
Thus not only does tlie visit of Mary to Elizabetli with all the attendant circumstances disappear from the page of history, but the historical validity of the further details-that John was only half a year older than Jesus ; tliat tlio two mothers were related; that an intimacy subsisted between the families;-cannot be affirmed on tlie testimony of Luke, unsupported by other authorities: indeed, tlie contrary rather will be found substantiated in the course of our critical investigations.
BIKTH AND EARLIEST EVENTS OF THE LIFE OF JESUS.
§ 32. THE CEXSUS.
WITH respect to tlie birth of Jesus, Matthew and Luke agree in representing it as taking place at Bethlehem; but whilst tlie latter enters into a minute derail of all tlie attendant circumstances, tlie former merely mentions tlie event as it were incidentally, referring to it once in an appended sentence as tlie sequel to what liad gone before, (i. 25.) and again as a presupposed occurrence, (n. 1.)
The one Evangelist seems to assume tliat Bethlehem was the habitual residence of the parents; but according to tlie other they arc led thither by very particular circumstances. This point of difference between tlie Evangelists however can only be discussed after
BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE OP JESUS.
we shall have collected more data; we will therefore leave it for the present, and turn our attention to an error into which Luke, when compared witli himself and with dates otherwise ascertained seems to have fallen. This is the statement, tliat the census, decreed by Augustus at the time when Cyrenius (Quirinus) was governor of Syria, was the occasion of the journey of tlie parents of Jesus, who usually resided at Nazareth, to Bethlehem where Jesus was born (Luke ii. 1. ff.)
The -first difficulty is that tlie d-ro’ypcKfifj (namely, the inscription of the name and amount of property in order to facilitate tlie taxation) commanded by Augustus, is extended to all the. world naoav Tfjv oiKovi.iKVTfv. ,„ This expression, in its common acceptation at that time, would denote the orbis Romanus. But ancient authors mention no such general census decreed by Augustus ; they speak only of the assessment of single provinces decreed at different times.
Consequently, it was said Luke meant to indicate by olitovf.iEvr)
merely tlie land of Judea, and not tlie Eoman world according to its ordinary signification.
Examples were forthwith collected in proof of tlie possibility of such an interpretation,* but they in fact prove nothing. For supposing it could not be sliown that in all these citations from the Scptuagint, Josephus, and the -New Testament, the expression really does signify, in tlie extravagant sense of these writers, tlie whole known world; still in the instance in question where the subject is a decree of the Roman emperor, Traaa •fj oiKovfievT] must necessarily be understood of the regions which he governed, and therefore of the orbis llomanus. This is the reason that latterly tlie opposite side lias been taken up, and it has been maintained, upon tlie authority of Savigny, that in the time of Augustus a census of tlie wliole empire was actually undertaken, f This is positively affirmed by late Christian writers; \ but the statement is rendered suspicious by the absence of all more ancient testimony ;§
Examples were forthwith collected in proof of tlie possibility of such an interpretation,* but they in fact prove nothing. For supposing it could not be sliown that in all these citations from the Scptuagint, Josephus, and the -New Testament, the expression really does signify, in tlie extravagant sense of these writers, tlie whole known world; still in the instance in question where the subject is a decree of the Roman emperor, Traaa •fj oiKovfievT] must necessarily be understood of the regions which he governed, and therefore of the orbis llomanus. This is the reason that latterly tlie opposite side lias been taken up, and it has been maintained, upon tlie authority of Savigny, that in the time of Augustus a census of tlie wliole empire was actually undertaken, f This is positively affirmed by late Christian writers; \ but the statement is rendered suspicious by the absence of all more ancient testimony ;§
and it is even contradicted by the fact, that for a considerable lapse of time an equal assessment throughout the empire was not effected.
Finally, tlie very expressions of these writers show that their testimony rests upon that of Luke. ]| But, if is said, Augustus at all events attempted an equal assessment of the empire by means of an universal census; and lie began tlie carrying out his project by an assessment of individual provinces, but he left tlie further execution and completion to his successors. ^ Admit tliat the gospel term 66ypa (decree) may be interpreted as a mere design, or, as Hoffmann thinks, an undetermined project expressed in an imperial decree;
^ * Olshauscn, Paulus, Kuinol. -t- Tlioluck, S. 194 ff. Keander, S. 10. j: Cassiodor.
Variarum 3, 52. Isidor. Orig. n, 3!i. § To refer here to the Monumentum Awyranum, which is said to record a census of the whole empire in the year of Rome 74G, (Osiander, P. ‘.);).) is proof of the srcatcst carelessness. For . he who examines this inscription will , nnd mention only of three asscpsmerts census civmm Romanorum, which Suetonius designates c(•niffin prpuli and of which -Dio Cnssius speaks, at least of one of them. as uTrovpaAi)
TLIV ey Tg ‘Ira/.ia KaTdiicuvvTuv.
See Ideler, Chronol. 2, S. 339.|| In the authoritative citation in .Suiilas are the words taken from Luke, avTi] ri diroypa^?/ •npwi) e-yevero.
See Ideler, Chronol. 2, S. 339.|| In the authoritative citation in .Suiilas are the words taken from Luke, avTi] ri diroypa^?/ •npwi) e-yevero.
THE LIFE OF JESUS.
still the fulfilment of tins project in Judea at the time of the Lirth
of Jesus was impossible.
Matthew places tlie Lirth of Jesus shortly before the death of IIcrod tlie Great, whom he represents (ii. 19.) as dying during tlie abode of Jesus in Egypt. Luke says tlie same indirectly, for when speaking of tlie announcement of tlie Lirth of the Baptist, he refers it to tlie days of Herod the Great, and lie places the birth of Jesus precisely six months later; so that according to Luke, also, Jesus was Lorn, if not, like John, previous to the death of Herod I., shortly after that event. Now, after tlie dcatli of Herod tlie country of Judea fell to his son Archelaus, (Matt. ii. 22.) who, after a reign of something less than ten years, was deposed and Lanishcd Ly Augustus,* at which time Judca was first consituted a Roman province, and began to be ruled by Roman functionarics.t Thus tlie Roman census in question must have been made either under Herod tlio Great, or at the commencement of tlie reign of Archelaus. This is in tlie highest degree improbable, for in those countries wliicli were not reduced in formam provincue, but were governed by regibus sociis, tlie taxes were levied by tliesc princes, wlio paid a tribute to the Romans; f and this was the state of tilings in Judea prior to the deposition of Archelaus. It lias been the object of much research to make it appear probable tliat Augustus decreed a census, as an extraordinary measure, in Palestine under Herod. Attention has Tacen directed to tlie circumstance that tlie breviarium irnpe/’ii, which Augustus left behind him, contained tlie financial state of the whole empire, and it lias been suggested that, in order to ascertain the financial condition of Palestine, lie caused a statement to be prepared by Herod. § Reference has been made first to the record of Josephus, tliat on account of some disturbance of tlie relations between Herod and Augustus, the latter threatened for tlie future to make liini feel his subjection; |] secondly, also to the oath of allegiance to Augustus which, according to Joscplius, the Jews were forced to take even during the lifetime of Herod.er From which it is inferred tliat Augustus, since he had it in contemplation after the dcatli of Herod to restrict the power of his sons, was very likely to have commanded a census in tlie laat years of that prince.
** But
** But
* Joseph. Antiq. 17, 13. 2. B. j. 2, 7, 3.+ Antiq. 17, 13, 5, 18, 1, 1. B. j. 2, S, 1.t Paulus, exeg. Uamlli. 1, a, S. 171. Winer, Libl. Kealworterbuch.§ Tacit.
Annal. 1, 11. yueton. Oetav. 101. But if in this document cipss puVtcal contrnvbantur i ou’mfit.m cirmm sociorwiifiae in urmis; quot classes.TCfJiui^ prwmafn^ tnliiita aut vf-vUwiw.
et necvssif.fUf^ ac ftii’f/itmws: the number of troops and tile sum which tlie Jewish prince had to furnish, might have been given without a Koman tax being levied in their land.
For Judca in particular Augustus had before him the subsequent census made by Quirinusi|| “OTt, 7ru/-at ^pu^vof; avr(.> ^;^CJ, vvv VTrijK.ot^ ^p^aerai,. Joseph. Antiq. 1G, 9, 3.
lint tlie dilt’rreiice. was adjusted lung before the death of Herod. Antiq. 1(1, 10, 9.
^[ Joseph. Antiq. 17, 2, 4. Trarroc TOV ‘lov^aiKov pepaiufJavrof; 61 upauv. rj fn/v ei’ToP/aal, KaiWpt Kit TOC(; (Saci^s^ 7~pa^’^n(7i. That this oatii, far from being a humiliating me;isure for Herod, cuincided with his interest, is proved by the zeal with which lie punished the Pharisees wlui refused to take it, ** Tholuck, S, 192 f. But the insurrection which the u.-oyfMi’jiii at’ter tlie depositions of Arehelau.s actually occasioned-a fact which outweighs
^[ Joseph. Antiq. 17, 2, 4. Trarroc TOV ‘lov^aiKov pepaiufJavrof; 61 upauv. rj fn/v ei’ToP/aal, KaiWpt Kit TOC(; (Saci^s^ 7~pa^’^n(7i. That this oatii, far from being a humiliating me;isure for Herod, cuincided with his interest, is proved by the zeal with which lie punished the Pharisees wlui refused to take it, ** Tholuck, S, 192 f. But the insurrection which the u.-oyfMi’jiii at’ter tlie depositions of Arehelau.s actually occasioned-a fact which outweighs
BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS.
147
147
it seems more probable that it took place shortly after the deatli of Herod, from tlie circumstance that Archelaus went to Rome concerning the matter of succession, and that during his absence, tlie Roman procurator Sabinus occupied Jerusalem, and oppressed the Jews by every possible means.*
(“ Tlie Evangelist relieves us from a farther inquiry into this more or less historical or arbitrary combination by adding, that tills taxing was first made wlicn Cyrcmus (Quirinus) was governor of Syria, riyefiovKvovro^ -i]<- ‘S.vpla.o K.vprjvlov; for it is an authenticated point tliat tlie assessment of Quirinua did not take place either under Herod or early in tlie rci^’n of Archelaus, tlie period at which, according to Luke, Jesus was born.
Quirinus was not at tliat time governor of Syria, a situation lield during tlie last years of Herod hy Sentiu.3
Quirinus was not at tliat time governor of Syria, a situation lield during tlie last years of Herod hy Sentiu.3
Saturnmus, and after him by Quintilius Varus ; and it was not till long after the death of Herod tliat Quirinus was appointed governor of Syria. Tliat Quirinus undertook a census of Judca we know certainly from Joscplius,f wlio, however, remarks that lie was sent to execute this measure, ~ij(; ‘Ap^eXdov %wpa^ etc E-rap^iav nepl-ypa^ei<7?;c, or vTrorc/lovc ‘-pocwep^eiff^i TTJ Svpuv,^ thus about ten years after tlie time at which, according to Matthew and Luke, Jesus must have been horn.
Yet commentators have supposed it possible to reconcile this apparently undeniable contradiction between Luke and history.
The most dauntless explain the wliole of the second verse as a gloss, which was early incorporated into the tcxt.§ Some cliangc tlie reading of the verse; cither of tlie nomen prqprium, by substituting tlie name of Saturninus or Quintilius, || according to the example of Tertullian, wlio ascribed tlie census to tlie former :^[ or of tlie other words, by various additions and modifications.
Paulus’s alteration is tlie most simple. He reads, instead of awrj, avr-q, and concludes, from tlie reasons stated above, tliat. Augustus actually gave orders for a census during the reign of Herod I., and that tlie order was so far carried out as to occasion tlie journey of Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem; ‘but tliat Augustus being afterwards conciliated, the measure was abandoned, and OVT^T] aTroypa^^ w-as only carried into effect a considerable time later, by Quirinus. Trifling as this alteration, which leaves tlie letters unchanged, may appear, in order to render it, admissible it must be supported by the. context.
Tlie reverse, however, is tlie fact. For if one sentence narrates a command issued by a prince, and tlie very next sentence its execution, it is not probable tliat a space of ten years intervened. But chiefly, according to tills view the Evangelist speaks, verse 1, of the decree ot tlie emperor; verse 2, of tlie census made ten years later; but verse 3, without any remark, again of a journey performed at the
The most dauntless explain the wliole of the second verse as a gloss, which was early incorporated into the tcxt.§ Some cliangc tlie reading of the verse; cither of tlie nomen prqprium, by substituting tlie name of Saturninus or Quintilius, || according to the example of Tertullian, wlio ascribed tlie census to tlie former :^[ or of tlie other words, by various additions and modifications.
Paulus’s alteration is tlie most simple. He reads, instead of awrj, avr-q, and concludes, from tlie reasons stated above, tliat. Augustus actually gave orders for a census during the reign of Herod I., and that tlie order was so far carried out as to occasion tlie journey of Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem; ‘but tliat Augustus being afterwards conciliated, the measure was abandoned, and OVT^T] aTroypa^^ w-as only carried into effect a considerable time later, by Quirinus. Trifling as this alteration, which leaves tlie letters unchanged, may appear, in order to render it, admissible it must be supported by the. context.
Tlie reverse, however, is tlie fact. For if one sentence narrates a command issued by a prince, and tlie very next sentence its execution, it is not probable tliat a space of ten years intervened. But chiefly, according to tills view the Evangelist speaks, verse 1, of the decree ot tlie emperor; verse 2, of tlie census made ten years later; but verse 3, without any remark, again of a journey performed at the
* Antiq. 17, 9, 3. 10, 1 ft: B. j, 2, 1. 2, His oppressions however had reference only to tlie fortresses and the treasures of Herod.+ Antiq 18, 1, 1.
\ Bell. jud. 2, 8, I. 9, 1. Antiq, 17, 13, 5.
§ Kuinol, Comm. in Luc. p. 320.|1 Winer. \ Adv. Man
\ Bell. jud. 2, 8, I. 9, 1. Antiq, 17, 13, 5.
§ Kuinol, Comm. in Luc. p. 320.|1 Winer. \ Adv. Man
THE LIFE OF JESUS.
time tlie command was issued; which, in a rational narrative, is impossible. Opposed to sucli arbitrary conjectures, and always to be ranked above them, are the attempts to solve a difficulty by legitimate methods of interpretation.
Truly, however, to take Trpw-rf in tilis connexion for wpo-epa, and f]yEp,ovevov-o(; K. not for a genitive absolute, but for a genitive governed by a comparative, and thus to understand an enrolment before that of Quirinus,* is to do violence to grammatical construction; and to insert r^p’o T?JC after •n-ptii-r^f is no less uncritical. As little is it to be admitted that some preliminary measure, in wliicli Quirinus was not employed, perhaps the already mentioned oath of allegiance, took place during the lifetime of Herod, in reference to tlie census subsequently made by Quirinus ; and that tills preliminary step and the census were afterwards comprised under tlie same name.
In order in some degree to account for tills appellation, Quirinus is said to have been sent into Judca, in Herod’s time, as an extraordinary tax-commissioner;;: but this interpretation of tlie word flye^iovevov-og is rendered impossible bv tlie addition of the word ^vplac;, in combination with which the expression can denote only the frcsses Syria;.
Truly, however, to take Trpw-rf in tilis connexion for wpo-epa, and f]yEp,ovevov-o(; K. not for a genitive absolute, but for a genitive governed by a comparative, and thus to understand an enrolment before that of Quirinus,* is to do violence to grammatical construction; and to insert r^p’o T?JC after •n-ptii-r^f is no less uncritical. As little is it to be admitted that some preliminary measure, in wliicli Quirinus was not employed, perhaps the already mentioned oath of allegiance, took place during the lifetime of Herod, in reference to tlie census subsequently made by Quirinus ; and that tills preliminary step and the census were afterwards comprised under tlie same name.
In order in some degree to account for tills appellation, Quirinus is said to have been sent into Judca, in Herod’s time, as an extraordinary tax-commissioner;;: but this interpretation of tlie word flye^iovevov-og is rendered impossible bv tlie addition of the word ^vplac;, in combination with which the expression can denote only the frcsses Syria;.
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