Blood (34 page)

On the same subject, see Constance Backhouse,
Colour-Coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900–1950
(published for the Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History by University of Toronto Press, 1999). Of particular interest is chapter six, “It Will Be Quite an Object Lesson:
R. v Phillips and the Ku Klux Klan
in Oakville, Ontario, 1930,” which focuses on the charges and court cases stemming from the incident. Only one man was punished: a Hamilton chiropractor by the name of William A. Phillips, who was fined $50 for wearing a mask by night. When Phillips appealed the conviction, the Ontario Court of Appeal sentenced him to three months in jail.

PAGES 303–8: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SALLY HEMINGS

There are many books and articles about the nearly four-decades-long love affair between American president Thomas Jefferson and his slave mistress, Sally Hemings. I will mention the sources I found most helpful:

Barbara Chase-Riboud,
Sally Hemings
(St. Martin's, 1979). This novel is interwoven with many bits of historical information. See page 262 for the provocative quote from Dolley Madison (wife of James Madison, the fourth American president), and page 341 for the quote from Thomas Jefferson's first draft of the Declaration of Independence.

For a visual representation of Thomas Jefferson's fulminations against King George
III
in the first draft of the Declaration of Independence, see page 272 of my novel
The Book of Negroes,
illustrated edition (HarperCollins Canada, 2009).

Jan Lewis, “Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings Redux: Introduction,”
William and Mary Quarterly
, 3rd series, 57, no. 1 (January 2000).

For the excerpt from James Thomson Callender's newspaper article alleging Jefferson's long-time affair with Hemings, see B. R. Burg, “The Rhetoric of Miscegenation: Thomas Jefferson, Sally Hemings, and Their Historians,”
Phylon
47, no. 2 (1986).

For a meditation on the paternity of Sally Hemings's children, based on the timing of visits by Thomas Jefferson to the Monticello plantation where Hemings worked, see Fraser D. Neiman, “Coincidence or Causal Connection? The Relationship between Thomas Jefferson's Visits to Monticello and Sally Hemings's Conceptions,”
William and Mary Quarterly
, 3rd series, 57, no. 1 (January 2000).

For Jefferson's quote on “the amalgamation of whites with blacks,” see E. M. Halliday,
Understanding Thomas Jefferson
(Harper Perennial, 2002), 153.

PBS
Frontline
quiz that indicates that Jefferson wrote the quote in 1814. See
www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/quiz/12.html
.

The
Wikipedia
article “John Wayles” indicates that Sally Hemings was the half-sister of Jefferson's wife.

Annette Gordon-Reed,
The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family
(W. W. Norton, 2008).

Wikipedia
, “Sally Hemings.”

PAGES 308–14: RACE, ANCESTRY, AND GENETICS

Sheldon Krimsky and Kathleen Sloan,
Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture
(Columbia University Press, 2011). From this anthology, I especially drew from the article by Troy Duster, “Ancestry Testing and
DNA
: Uses, Limits and Caveat Emptor.” The quote is drawn from Duster's article, page 113.

Carolyn Abraham,
The Juggler's Children: A Journey into Family, Legend and the Genes That Bind Us
(Random House Canada, 2013). This book provides an up-to-date picture of just how far a person can run with genetics in exploring her family ancestry.

Edward Ball,
The Genetic Strand: Exploring a Family History Through
dna
(Simon and Schuster, 2007).

Henry Louis Gates
, In Search of Our Roots: How 19 Extraordinary African Americans Reclaimed Their Past
(Crown Publishers, 2009). Of particular interest to me were the chapters about Whoopi Goldberg, Oprah Winfrey, and Bliss Broyard.

Troy Duster,
Backdoor to Eugenics
, 2nd ed. (Routledge, 2003).

Katharina Schramm, David Skinner, and Richard Rottenburg,
Identity Politics and the New Genetics: Re/Creating Categories of Difference and Belonging
(Berghahn Books, 2012).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I WOULD LIKE TO
extend first thanks to my wife, Miranda Hill, who supported me in every way imaginable over the course of this book project. Miranda helped me conceive the idea for this book about blood, reassured me that I could do it when my own doubts surfaced, and offered a stream of suggestions about research and revisions. She was my first reader, an astute critic, and a motivating cajoler. Our children — Geneviève, Caroline, and Andrew Hill and Eve and Beatrice Freedman — all pitched in to see me through this project. Geneviève read and commented on numerous drafts, Caroline offered research on vampires and tainted blood, Andrew helped organize my office and files, Eve informed me about Artemisia Gentileschi, and Beatrice asked every month, “How's that book coming?”

I ALSO WISH TO
THANK
John Fraser, Master of Massey College at the University of Toronto, for finding and funding two diligent, imaginative researchers. Taylor Martin, a mechanical engineer currently enrolled in a graduate program in health administration at the University of Toronto, covered medical and scientific research questions. James McKee, a doctoral candidate in political science at the University of Toronto, researched social, cultural, and historical issues. Both Taylor and James sent me research notes, scholarly articles, dissertations, and book references, always operating with efficiency and grace under pressure. Abbie Buckman, Marilyn Verghis, Caroline Hill, Geneviève Hill, and Miranda Hill also provided valuable research assistance.

MY GRANDFATHER, THE AMERICAN
theologian and African Methodist Episcopal Church minister Daniel G. Hill Jr., used to ask me, while he leaned on his cane, to “prop me up on every leaning side.” I thought of my grandfather as I relied, all too heavily, on scholars, lawyers, and physicians to prop up my early drafts on every leaning side. They were all generous enough to offer constructive criticism, advice, and encouragement as I waded in waters in which they have swum for years.

Chris Andersen, a Métis
scholar in the Faculty of Native Studies and Director of the Rupertsland Centre for Métis
Research at the University of Alberta.

Sports journalist Stephen Brunt, on boxing and about performance-enhancing drugs in sport.

Marie Carrière, Associate Professor of French and Comparative Literature and Director of the Canadian Literature Centre at the University of Alberta.

Avram Denburg, paediatrician and Haematology/Oncology Fellow at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto.

Daniel Heath Justice, a Colorado-born Canadian citizen of the Cherokee Nation and Associate Professor and Chair of the First Nations Studies Program at the University of British Columbia.

Audrey Macklin, Professor and Chair in Human Rights Law at the University of Toronto Faculty of Law.

Minelle Mahtani, Assistant Professor of Geography at the University of Toronto, and author of the forthcoming
Mixed Race Cartographies: Resisting the Romanticization of Multiraciality in Canada
(University of British Columbia Press, 2014).

Émile Martel, a poet who has translated Sor Juana's poetry into French in
Écrits profanes: un choix de textes
(Écrits des Forges, 1996).

Eric M. Meslin, Director, Indiana University Center for Bioethics, and Associate Dean for Bioethics, Indiana University School of Medicine.

Judith H. Newman, Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and Early Judaism, Emmanuel College and the Department for the Study of Religion, University of Toronto.

André
Picard, who has written extensively about Canada's tainted-blood scandal.

Jana Rieger, Professor, Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Alberta.

Jean Teillet, Métis lawyer, great-grandniece of Louis Riel, and partner in the law firm Pape Salter Teillet.

Karina Vernon, Assistant Professor of English at the University of Toronto.

Michael K. Schuessler, a professor in the Department of Humanities at the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana in Mexico City.

Sukanya Pillay, an international lawyer who works in Toronto with the Canadian Civil Liberties Association.

THESE KIND SOULS SET
ASIDE TIME
for interviews with me:

Bruce Baum, Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of British Columbia, on the historical roots of racist ideology.

Lawyers Margaret Rosling and Thomas R. Berger, Q.C., with the Vancouver law firm Aldridge and Rosling, on Aboriginal identity.

Daniel Coleman, Professor of English at McMaster University, on blood in religious texts.

Glen Coulthard, a member of the Yellowknives Dene First Nation and Assistant Professor of First Nations Studies and Political Science at the University of British Columbia, on Aboriginal identity.

My aunt Doris Hill Cochran, on matters of family culture.

My mother, Donna Hill, on family culture and on the story of Harry Narine-Singh.

Wayne Grady, writer, on racial passing in his family.

Karen Grose, educational leader and superintendent with the Toronto District School Board, on adoption.

Amanda Jernigan, poet, on blood and identity.

Cangene Corporation employee Cheryl Lawson, on the history of plasma donations in Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Winnipeg resident Raymonde Marius, on donating her own plasma more than one thousand times.

University of British Columbia sociologist Renisa Mawani, on blood and identity.

Ania Szado, writer, on von Willebrand disease.

Trent Stellingwerff, Senior Exercise Physiologist with the Canadian Sport Institute, on the effect of exercise on the bloodstream, and on doping and performance-enhancement drugs in sport.

Patty Solomon, Associate Dean of Rehabilitation Science at McMaster University, on blood and stigma.

Mark Wainberg, Director of the McGill University
AIDS
Centre and Professor of Medicine at McGill University, and Kris Wells, Associate Director of the Institute for Sexual Minority Studies and Services at the University of Alberta, both on blood donation policies pertaining to gay men.

FOR IDEAS, SUGGESTIONS, CORRECTIONS,
contacts, meals, and all manner of encouragement during this writing project, I also wish to thank writers Margaret Atwood, Randy Boyagoda, David Chariandy, Wayson Choy, and Pura López-Colomé; scholars Neil Brooks, Carol Duncan, Christl Verduyn, and Jack Veugelers; educators Grace Centritto, Tina Conlon, and David Cristelli; lawyers David Cohn, Bryan Finlay, and Seth Weinstein; marathoner Reid Coolsaet and hurdler Perdita Felicien, both Olympians; physicians Anjali Anselm, Mark Crowther, Hertzel Gerstein, and David Price; journalist Lisa Robinson; social worker Robyn Smith; the professors and students at the Universidad del Claustro de Sor Juana in Mexico City; and Pierre Sved, Gloria Antoinetti, Shauna Hemingway, and Ginette Martin at the Canadian embassy in Mexico City; as well as my friends Jennifer Conkie, Carol Finlay, Richard Longley, Jeanie MacFarlane, David Morton, Myra Novogrodsky, Alice Repei, David Steen, Jane Walker, and Gayle Waters.

THANKS AS WELL TO
my assistant, Lauren Repei, for her good cheer and diligent work; my agent, Ellen Levine at Trident Media Group, for her dedicated negotiations on my behalf; my devoted, hardworking, and ever encouraging editor, Janie Yoon at House of Anansi Press; Peter Norman for copy-editing; Gillian Watts and Chelsey Catterall for proofreading; Philip Coulter and Bernie Lucht at
CBC
Radio for assistance with the book and with its adaptation to public lectures and radio broadcasts; and to John Fraser, Anna Luengo, Amela Marin, Liz Hope, and Hannah Allen at Massey College at the University of Toronto, for housing me in Toronto during research trips.

THANK YOU TO THE
staff at the University of Toronto's Robarts Library. I scoured countless books and articles, and couldn't have done it without you. Sometimes I wonder if there is a book in the world that is
not
in your stacks. Please know that I accepted the invitation to write this book and deliver the 2013 Massey Lectures first and foremost to score a fully loaded University of Toronto library card. Thank you for that. Could I get another, next year?

INDEX

Abbott, Anderson Ruffin,
156

Aboriginal peoples: as defined by blood quantum,
196
,
203
,
208
; and irrelevance of identity definitions,
199
,
200
,
310
.
See also
First Nations; Inuit; Métis; Native peoples

Abraham and Isaac,
77

Abraham, Carolyn,
310

Adams, John,
151

Adams, John Quincy,
151

adoption,
157
,
205
,
312
; transracial/international,
159

Africa: black ancestry in,
135
,
180
,
191
,
213
,
309
; familial (non-kinship) ties in,
164
; malaria in,
47

African-American experience: of author's ancestors,
146
,
276
; of blood segregation policy,
100
,
102
,
111
,
113
; of citizenship,
170
; in health care field,
100
-
2
; of mixed-race identity,
191
,
195
,
213
; of “passing,”
156
,
293
; of slavery,
48
,
135
,
146
,
191
,
195
,
197
,
198
,
213
,
303
; of slave/servant women,
194
,
272
,
278
,
303
; in sports,
69
,
70
,
123

African American Lives
(mini-series),
309

African-Canadian experience: of hidden black ancestry,
156
; with Ku Klux Klan,
301
; of slavery,
154
,
293
.
See also
family of author

African Methodist Episcopal (
AME
) Church,
146
,
277
,
278

AIDS
,
9
,
314
; and gay blood donor ban,
109
; and
HIV
,
109
,
134
,
138
,
272
; and tainted blood scandal,
108
,
109
.
See also
gay blood donors, ban on; tainted blood scandal

Al Abrash, Jothima,
26

Alamance General Hospital (North Carolina),
104

Ali, Muhammad,
247

Alma-Tadema, Lawrence:
The Women of Amphissa
,
223

American Medical Association,
114

American Red Cross,
33
,
102
,
113

Andersen, Chris,
200

anemia,
46
,
67
,
90
,
126

Angelou, Maya,
309

animals, blood sports involving,
65
,
243
,
250

apartheid, in South Africa,
191
,
193
,
212

Aphrodite,
83

Arenal, Electa, and Amanda Powell,
237

Aristotle,
36
,
37
,
221

Arkansas Department of Correction,
107

Armstrong, Lance,
20
,
116
,
121
,
124
,
132
; testimony against,
118
,
129
; Winfrey's interviews of,
116
,
130

Artemisia
(film),
85

Astaphan, Jamie,
122

atomic bombing of Japan,
91

Ayurveda (medicine of ancient India),
24

Bacchanalia,
223

Bacchus, and female followers of,
223
,
239

Backhouse, Constance,
207

Banting, Frederick,
62

Baril, Francine and Pierre,
47

Baum, L. Frank:
The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
,
227

Bemberg, María Luisa:
Yo, la peor de todas
(film),
240

Beothuk (people),
273

Best, Charles,
62

Bethune, Norman,
32

Bird, J. Edward,
183

blood: author's earliest experiences with,
1
; as class/status marker,
18
,
66
,
147
; as defining/identifying us,
10
,
134
; families and,
142
; language and,
18
,
64
; power/public spectacle and,
11
,
217
; religion and,
11
,
26
,
63
,
142
,
233
; religious taboos against,
26
,
38
,
142
,
234
; secrets revealed by,
11
,
276
; truth/honour and,
10
,
67
.
See also specific topics; entries immediately below

blood, as physical entity,
13
; circulation of,
8
,
22
,
28
; clotting of,
16
,
21
,
46
,
55
; colour of,
18
; components of,
14
,
46
,
138
; diseases of,
46
;
DNA
testing of,
230
,
286
,
302
; donations of,
22
,
31
,
74
,
98
; letting of,
24
; and menstruation,
34
,
234
; removing stains of,
280
,
283
; Rh factor of,
21
,
33
,
51
; and sports cheating,
115
; stain pattern analysis of,
285
; storage/transport of,
32
,
46
,
102
; and theory of humours,
22
,
148
; transfusion of,
29
; types of,
21
,
31
,
32
,
63
,
98
.
See also specific topics and blood diseases

blood banks/depots,
32
,
102
; criminal activity and,
230

blood brothers,
65
; in Norse legend,
165

blood clotting,
9
,
21
,
22
,
46
,
55
; plasma/platelets and,
14
,
15
,
16
,
107
; prevention of,
25
,
32
,
34
,
117

blood donations,
22
,
31
,
74
,
98
; by black population,
100
,
102
,
111
,
113
; by gay population,
109
; person-to-person,
31
; storage/transport of,
32
,
102
; and tainted blood scandal,
107
; as ultimate gift,
34
,
98
,
107
; wartime innovations and,
32
,
34
,
102
.
See also
blood transfusion; tainted blood scandal

blood doping,
116
,
124
; agencies fighting,
118
,
124
,
126
,
128
; by Armstrong,
20
,
116
,
121
,
124
,
132
; and history of sports cheating,
119
; improved testing for,
124
,
128
,
130
; legal alternatives to,
126

bloodletting,
24
,
239
; deaths following,
26
; methods of,
24
; police use of,
232

“blood libel,” against Jews,
265

“blood purity,”
260
; of Aboriginal peoples,
196
,
203
,
208
; apartheid and,
191
,
193
,
212
; blood segregation policy and,
102
; genocide and,
212
,
269
,
288
; in Harry Potter books,
262
,
265
; Holocaust and,
154
,
212
,
263
,
288
,
313
; of Jews,
154
,
264
,
265
,
288
,
313
; and Mexican caste system,
187
; of mixed-race people,
187
; and “one-drop” rule,
192
,
213
; and Spanish persecution of Jews/Muslims,
225
,
265
,
313

blood quantum, Aboriginal: in Canada,
203
,
208
; in U.S.,
196

blood removal, forcible: by blood traffickers,
229
; as Holocaust experiment,
229
; by police,
231
; by witches,
222
,
227
,
228

blood segregation policy (U.S.),
100
,
102
,
111
,
113

blood sports: animals and,
65
,
243
,
250
; boxing,
70
,
241
,
245
; hockey fighting,
65
,
244
; ultimate fighting,
245
,
248

bloodstain pattern analysis,
285

blood testing,
6
,
8
,
10
,
11
,
138
; for alcohol,
232
; of athletes,
124
,
128
; for
HIV/AIDS
and other viruses,
111
,
114
.
See also
DNA
testing

blood transfusion,
29
,
46
,
55
,
98
,
315
; author's experience of,
138
; and blood doping,
116
,
125
,
127
; and blood segregation policy,
100
,
102
,
111
,
113
; and blood storage/transport,
32
,
102
; and compatible blood types,
31
,
32
,
139
; early attempts at,
29
,
315
; person-to-person,
31
; and Rh factor,
33
,
52
; and tainted blood,
47
,
107
,
314
; wartime innovations and,
32
,
34
,
102