Bad Science (28 page)

1. Matter

“The first day”:
New York Daily News
(September 30, 2007).

“The candles work by”:
www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/mind/pages/hopi.shtml
.

a paper published: Seely, D. R.; Quigley, S. M., and Langman, A. W. Ear candles—efficacy and safety.
Laryngoscope
106, no. 10 (October 1996): 1226–29.

a published study: Ibid.

“These cleansing and”: Green, E. C., and Honwana, A. Indigenous healing of war-affected children in Africa. IK Notes No. 10. Knowledge and Learning Center Africa Region, World Bank Washington (1999); available:
www.africaaction.org/docs99/viol9907.htm
.

4. Homeopathy

In one study: Marshall, T. Reducing unnecessary consultation—a case of NNNT?
Bandolier
44, no. 4 (1997): 1–3.

But the point of the study: MacManus, M. P.; Matthews, J. P.; Wada, M.; Wirth, A.; Worotniuk, V.; Ball, D. L. Unexpected long-term survival after low-dose palliative radiotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer.
Cancer
106, no. 5 (March 1, 2006): 1110–16.

a very theatrical trial: Majeed, A. W., et al. Randomised, prospective, single-blind comparison of laparoscopic versus small-incision cholecystectomy.
Lancet
347, no. 9007 (April 13, 1996): 989–94.

a review of blinding: Schulz, K. F.; Chalmers, I.; Hayes, R. J.; Altman, D. G. Empirical evidence of bias: dimensions of methodological quality associated with estimates of treatment effects in controlled trials.
JAMA
273 (1995): 408–12.

a review of trials: Ernst, E., and White, A. R. Acupuncture for back pain: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
Arch Int Med
158 (1998): 2235–41.

Diagram: Schulz et al. Empirical evidence of bias, 408–12.

a standard review: Ernst, E., and Pittler, M. H. Efficacy of homeopathic arnica: a systematic review of placebo-controlled clinical trials.
Arch Surg.
133, no. 11 (November 1998): 1187–90.

“Let us take out”: van Helmont, J. B.
Oriatrike, or Physick Refined: The Common Errors Therein Refuted and the Whole Are Reformed and Rectified
London: Lodowick-Loyd, 1662), p. 526; available at
www.jameslindlibrary.org
.

two landmark studies: Khan, K. S.; Daya, S.; Jadad, A. R. The importance of quality of primary studies in producing unbiased systematic reviews.
Arch Intern Med
156 (1996): 661–66; Moher, D.; Pham, B.; Jones, A., et al. Does quality of reports of randomized trials affect estimates of intervention efficacy reported in meta-analyses?
Lancet
352 (1998): 609–13.

Diagram: Ernst, E., and Pittler, M. H. Re-analysis of previous meta-analysis of clinical trials of homeopathy. J Clin Epi 53, no. 11 (2000): 1188.

A landmark meta-analysis: Shang, A.; Huwiler-Müntener, K.; Nartey, L.; Jüni, P.; Dörig, S.; Sterne, J. A.; Pewsner, D.; Egger, M. Are the clinical effects of homoeopathy placebo effects? Comparative study of placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy and allopathy.
Lancet
366, no. 9487 (August 27, September 2, 2005): 726–32.

One study actually thought: Tallon, D.; Chard, J.; Dieppe, P. Relation between agendas of the research community and the research consumer.
Lancet
355 (2000): 2037–40.

“They might flick”: BBC Radio 4 Case Notes, July 19, 2005.

5. The Placebo Effect

“Shall [the placebo]”: The placebo in medicine.
Medical Press
(June 18, 1890): 642.

Henry Beecher: Beecher, H. K. The powerful placebo.
JAMA
159, no. 17 (December 24, 1955): 1602–06.

Peter Parker: Skrabanek, P., and McCormick, J.
Follies and Fallacies in Medicine
(Glasgow: Tarragon Press, 1989).

Daniel Moerman: Moerman, D. E. General medical effectiveness and human biology: placebo effects in the treatment of ulcer disease.
Med Anth Quarterly
14, no. 4 (August 1983): 3–16.

in a different data set: de Craen, A. J.; Moerman, D. E.; Heisterkamp, S. H.; Tytgat, G. N.; Tijssen, J. G.; Kleijnen, J. Placebo effect in the treatment of duodenal ulcer.
Br J Clin Pharmacol
48, no. 6 (December 1999): 853–60.

Blackwell (1972): Blackwell, B.; Bloomfield, S. S.; Buncher, C. R. Demonstration to medical students of placebo responses and non-drug factors.
Lancet
1, no. 7763 (June 10, 1972): 1279–82.

Another study: Schapira, K.; McClelland, H. A.; Griffiths, N. R.; Newell, D. J. Study on the effects of tablet color in the treatment of anxiety states.
BMJ
1, no. 5707 (May 23, 1970): 446–49.

a survey of the color: de Craen, A. J.; Roos, P. J.; Leonard de Vries, A.; Kleijnen, J. Effect of color of drugs: systematic review of perceived effect of drugs and of their effectiveness.
BMJ
313, no. 7072 (December 21–28, 1996): 1624–26.

In 1970: Hussain, M. Z., and Ahad, A. Tablet color in anxiety states.
BMJ
3, no. 5720 (August 22, 1970): 466.

Route of administration: Grenfell, R. F.; Briggs, A. H.; Holland, W. C. Double blind study of the treatment of hypertension.
JAMA
176 (1961): 124–28; De Craen, A.J.M.; Tijssen, J.G.P.; de Gans, J.; Kleijnen, J. Placebo effect in the acute treatment of migraine: subcutaneous placebos are better than oral placebos.
J Neur
247 (2000): 183–88; Gracely, R. H.; Dubner, R.; McGrath, P. A. Narcotic analgesia: fentanyl reduces the intensity but not the unpleasantness of painful tooth pulp sensations.
Science
203, no. 4386, (March 23, 1979): 1261–63.

the bizarre story of packaging: Kaptchuk, T. J.; Stason, W. B.; Davis, R. B.; Legedza, A. R.; Schnyer, R. N.; Kerr, C. E.; Stone, D. A.; Nam, B. H.; Kirsch, I.; Goldman, R. H. Sham device v inert pill: randomized controlled trial of two placebo treatments.
BMJ
332, no. 7538 (February 18, 2006): 391–97.

Branthwaite and Cooper: Branthwaite, A., and Cooper, P. Analgesic effects of branding in treatment of headaches.
BMJ
(Clin Res ed.) 282 (1981): 1576–78.

a recent study: Waber et al. Commercial features of placebo and therapeutic efficacy.
JAMA
299 (2008): 1016–17.

a paper currently in press: Ginoa, F. Do we listen to advice just because we paid for it? The impact of advice cost on its use. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 107, Issue 2, November 2008, 234–45 (published online April 25, 2008), dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.03.001.

Montgomery and Kirsch: Montgomery, G. H., and Kirsch, I. Mechanisms of placebo pain reduction: an empirical investigation.
Psych Science
7 (1996): 174–76.

a placebo-controlled trial: Cobb, L. A.; Thomas, G. I.; Dillard, D. H.; Merendino, K. A.; Bruce, R. A. An evaluation of internal-mammary-artery ligation by a double-blind technic.
N Eng J Med
260, no. 22 (May 28, 1959): 1115–18.

A Swedish study: Linde, C.; Gadler, F.; Kappenberger, L.; Rydén, L. Placebo effect of pacemaker implantation in obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. PIC Study Group.
Am J Cardiol
83, no. 6 (March 15, 1999): 903–37.

“Electrical machines have”: Johnson, A. G. Surgery as a placebo.
Lancet
344, no. 8930 (October 22, 1994): 1140–42.

an elegant study: Crum, A. J., and Langer, E. J. Mind-set matters: exercise and the placebo effect.
Psych Science
18, no. 2 (February 2007): 165–71.

Gryll and Katahn: Gryll, S. L., and Katahn, M. Situational factors contributing to the placebos effect.
Psychopharmacology
(Berlin) 57 (1978): 253–61.

Gracely (1985): Gracely, R. H.; Dubner, R.; Deeter, W. R.; Wolskee, P. J. Clinicians’ expectations influence placebo analgesia.
Lancet
1, no. 8419 (January 5, 1985): 43.

In 1987, Thomas: Thomas, K. B. General practice consultations: is there any point in being positive?
BMJ
(Clin Res ed.) 294, no. 6581 (May 9, 1987): 1200–02.

Raymond Tallis: Tallis, R.
Hippocratic Oaths: Medicine and Its Discontents
. (New York: Atlantic, 2004).

Quesalid: Lévi-Strauss, C. The sorcerer and his magic. In
Structural Anthropology
, trans Jacobson, C., and Schoef, B. G. (New York: Basic Books, 1963).

a classic study from 1965: Park, L. C., and Covi, L. Nonblind placebo trial: an exploration of neurotic patients’ responses to placebo when its inert content is disclosed.
Arch Gen Psych
12 (April 1965): 36–45.

Dr. Stewart Wolf: Wolf, S. Effects of suggestion and conditioning on the action of chemical agents in human subjects; the pharmacology of placebos.
J Clin Invest
, 29, no. 1 (January 1950): 100–09.

It’s been shown: de la Fuente-Fernández, R.; Ruth, T. J.; Sossi, V.; Schulzer, M.; Calne, D. B.; Stoessl, A. J. Expectation and dopamine release: mechanism of the placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease.
Science
293, no. 5532 (August 10, 2001): 1164–66.

Zubieta (2005): Zubieta, J. K.; Bueller, J. A.; Jackson, L. R.; Scott, D. J.; Xu, Y.; Koeppe, R. A.; Nichols, T. E.; Stohler, C. S. Placebo effects mediated by endogenous opioid activity on mu-opioid receptors.
J Neur
25, no. 34 (August 24, 2005): 7754–62.

Researchers have measured: Ader, R., and Cohen, N. Behaviorally conditioned immunosuppression.
Psychosom Med
37, no. 4 (July–August 1975): 333–40.

researchers gave healthy: Goebel, M. U.; Trebst, A. E.; Steiner, J.; Xie, Y. F.; Exton, M. S.; Frede, S.; Canbay, A. E.; Michel, M. C.; Heemann, U.; Schedlowski, M. Behavioral conditioning of immunosuppression is possible in humans.
FASEB J
16, no. 14 (December 2002): 1869–73.

Researchers have even: Buske-Kirschbaum, A.; Kirschbaum, C.; Stierle, H.; Lehnert, H.; Hellhammer, D. Conditioned increase of natural killer cell activity (NKCA) in humans.
Psychosom Med
54, no. 2 (March–April 1992): 123–32.

From survey data: Goodwin, J. S.; Goodwin, J. M.; Vogel, A. V. Knowledge and use of placebos by house officers and nurses.
Ann Intern Med
91, no. 1 (July 1979): 106–10.

You are a placebo responder: Moerman, D. E.
Meaning, Medicine and the “Placebo Effect”
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 34, summarizing secondary references to five further studies.

one of the most impressive: Moerman, D. E., and Harrington, A. Making space for the placebo effect in pain medicine.
Sem in Pain Med
3, 1 spec issue (March 2005): 2–6.

Another study from 2002: Walsh, B. T.; Seidman, S. N.; Sysko, R.; Gould, M. Placebo response in studies of major depression: variable, substantial, and growing.
JAMA
, 287, no. 14 (10 April 2002): 1840–47.

one study found: Ernst, E., and Schmidt, K. Aspects of MMR.
BMJ
325 (2002): 597.

6. The Nonsense Du Jour

“It is impossible”: Frankfurt, H. G.
On Bullshit
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); press.princeton.edu/video/frankfurt.