America's Great Game (59 page)

3
. Haikal,
The Cairo Documents
, 42; “United States Objectives and Policies with Respect to the Near East,” NSC 155/1, July 14, 1953, 5, NSC 155/1-Near East (2), White House Office, Office of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Policy Papers Subseries, DDEL.

4
. Lorraine Copeland, e-mail to author, November 25, 2010; MC,
Game Player
, 116–120, 113; Personnel Evaluation Report, June 1953, CO5651569, CIA FOIA.

5
. Eveland,
Ropes of Sand
, 103; MC,
Game Player
, 129. For more on the origins of psychological warfare, see Kenneth Osgood,
Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), chap. 1.

6
. MC, James Burnham obituary,
National Review
, September 11, 1987, 37; MC,
Game of Nations
, 260.

7
. Barbara S. Heyl, “The Harvard ‘Pareto Circle,’”
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences
4, no. 4 (1968): 316–334.

8
. MC to James Burnham, April 15, 1970, 6.4, James Burnham Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Stanford, CA; MC, Burnham obituary, 37; Miles Copeland III interview.

9
. MC,
Game Player
, 140–141.

10
. Ibid., 141, 142; “History of Booz Allen,”
http://www.boozallen.com/about/history
. For more on Lansdale, see Jonathan Nashel,
Edward Lansdale’s Cold War
(Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005). For an excellent example of recent scholarship about US foreign policy and modernization, see Michael E. Latham,
The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011). Most of the literature about modernization theory, the set of ideas that guided the United States’ modernization program, has stressed the intellectual influence of Harvard’s Talcott Parsons and detected a shift from, in the first years of the Cold War, an emphasis on liberal development strategies to, from the late 1950s on, a more coercive, authoritarian approach, as seen in the doctrine of “military modernization.” The example of Kim Roosevelt and Miles Copeland suggests another, previously overlooked strand of modernization theory, originating in Harvard’s Pareto Circle and more conservative from the outset, that found operational expression in CIA support for nationalist military governments in the Middle East several years before notions of military modernization began to catch on more widely.

11
. MC,
Game Player
, 158–161.

12
. Ibid., 161; Lorraine Copeland e-mail, November 25, 2010; Copeland,
Wild Thing
, 36.

13
. MC,
Game Player
, 163, 161. For more on Kearns and his relationship with the CIA, see the excellent documentary
Frank Kearns: American Correspondent
(PBS, 2012).

14
. MC,
Game of Nations
, 164, 239; Lorraine Copeland e-mail, November 25, 2010. On Miles’s continuing friendship with Nasser, see, for example, Raymond Hare to John Foster Dulles, December 8, 1958, 7, 320 UAR/US Relations, Egypt Classified General Records, RG 84, NA: “Copeland visited Cairo again December 3–4 [1958] for [the] purpose [of] obtaining background. As usual he saw NASSER, who apparently was friendly and in talking mood.”

15
. Haikal,
Cutting the Lion’s Tail
, 42; Wolfgang Lotz quoted in Thomas,
Secret Wars
, 141.

16
. Copeland titled
chapter 16
of
The Game Player
“The Nasserist Honeymoon”; Haikal refers to “this almost honeymoon period” in
Cutting the Lion’s Tail
, 42. For Jackson’s views on the Middle East, see C. D. Jackson, log, April 13, 1953, 68, Log-1953 (1), C. D. Jackson Papers, DDEL.

17
. Lorraine Copeland, e-mail to author, November 29, 2010; Eichelberger quoted in MC,
Game of Nations
, 74, 241–256.

18
. MC,
Game Player
, 165; MC,
Game of Nations
, 82; MC,
Game Player
, 166–167; MC,
Game of Nations
, 88; Sirrs,
History of the Egyptian Intelligence Service
, 34. The training in the writing of intelligence summaries was probably provided by Charles D. Cremeans, an officer in the CIA’s Office of National Estimates and scholarly authority on Arab nationalism whom Miles Copeland referred to as performing “a special diplomatic assignment to Egypt during 1955” (MC,
Game of Nations
, 257). Cremeans’s presence in Egypt in that year is confirmed in Eveland,
Ropes of Sand
, 145–146.

19
. MC,
Game of Nations
, 86–88.

20
. “Extract from a Letter,” March 18, 1954, 679.3, 1/2 General Political, 1945–57, Amery Papers. The Afrika Korps was the German expeditionary force in North Africa decisively defeated by the Allies at El Alamein in 1942.

21
. André Gerolymatos,
Castles Made of Sand: A Century of Anglo-American Espionage and Intervention in the Middle East
(New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2010), 134–137; Timothy Naftali, “Reinhard Gehlen and the United States,” in Richard Breitman et al.,
U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 404–405, 417n166.

22
. Naftali, “Reinhard Gehlen,” 405; Sirrs,
History of the Egyptian Intelligence Service
, 33. It is probably just coincidence that by 1959 the CIA station chief in Madrid was Archie Roosevelt.

23
. MC,
Game of Nations
, 84; Christopher Simpson,
Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945–1960
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 74; “Expenses of Lawrence W. Teed During Trip to Middle East,” 5.12, Paul M. A. Linebarger Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Although Linebarger’s papers contains little else relating to the work he performed for the CIA, his status as a consultant is confirmed in Harrison G. Reynolds to Paul Linebarger, June 13, 1956, 5.12, Linebarger Papers.

24
. Eden and Churchill quoted in Michael T. Thornhill,
Road to Suez: The Battle of the Canal Zone
(Stroud: Sutton, 2006), 123.

25
. MC,
Game Player
, 116–118; “Kermit Roosevelt Sees Naguib,”
New York Times
, January 25, 1954, 5; Makins to Foreign Office (hereafter FO), March 9, 1954, FO 371/108415, PRO; Tawil,
La‘bat al-umam
, 390–391; Hagerty quoted in Lucas,
Divided We Stand
, 16.

26
. Nasser quoted in Saïd K. Aburish,
Nasser: The Last Arab
(New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 54. On the possibility of CIA involvement in a staged assassination attempt, see Gordon,
Nasser’s Blessed Movement
, 179–180; James,
Nasser at War, 7
.

27
. William L. Cleveland and Martin Bunton,
A History of the Modern Middle East
, 4th ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2009), 307.

Twelve: Authoring a Coup: Iran, 1953

1
. Two recent works to which this chapter is indebted are the highly readable narrative account by Kinzer,
All the Shah’s Men
, 2nd ed. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008), and a collection of essays by leading scholars in the field, Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, eds.,
Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran
(Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2004).

2
. See Maziar Behrooz, “The 1953 Coup in Iran and the Legacy of the Tudeh,” in Gasiorowski and Byrne, eds.,
Mohammad Mosaddeq
, 102–125.

3
. “Man of the Year,”
Time
, January 7, 1952. For an influential discussion of Orientalist perceptions of Mosaddeq, see Mary Ann Heiss,
Empire and Nationhood: The United States, Great Britain, and Iranian Oil, 1950–1954
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 229–233.

4
. See Malcolm Byrne, “The Road to Intervention: Factors Influencing U.S. Policy Toward Iran, 1945–1953,” in Gasioworksi and Byrne, eds.,
Mohammad Mosaddeq
, 216–217, and Mark J. Gasiorowski, “The 1953 Coup d’Etat Against Mosaddeq,” in ibid., 235–236; Ivan L. G. Pearson,
In the Name of Oil: Anglo-American Relations in the Middle East, 1950–1958
(Eastbourne: Sussex Academic, 2010), 21; for the text of NSC 136/1, and a revealing March 1953 progress report on its implementation, see the National Security Archive’s Electronic Briefing Book,
Mohammad Mossadeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran
, June 22, 2004,
http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/index.htm
.

5
. Monty Woodhouse, “Iran, 1950–1953,” August 16, 1976, Christopher Montague Woodhouse Papers, Liddle Hart Centre for Military Archives/King’s College Archives, London. For more on Woodhouse’s role and British planning generally, see C. M. Woodhouse,
Something Ventured
(London: Granada, 1982), chaps. 8–9; Stephen Dorril,
MI6: Fifty Years of Special Operations
(London: Fourth Estate, 2000), chap. 27; Wm. Roger Louis, “Britain and the Overthrow of the Mosaddeq Government,” in Gasioworksi and Byrne, eds.,
Mohammad Mosaddeq
, 126–177.

6
. “Notes on the Life of Allen Dulles,” 10, Smith Collection.

7
. MC,
Game Player
, chap. 18; Gasiorowski, “1953 Coup,” 331n12.

8
. Goiran quoted in Dorril,
MI6
, 584. See Gasiorowski, “1953 Coup,” 331n10.

9
. Smith quoted in Makins to FO, August 17, 1953, PREM 11/514, PRO.

10
. Gasiorowski, “1953 Coup,” 250.

11
. The shah quoted in William Shawcross,
The Shah’s Last Ride: The Fate of an Ally
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), 70; KR quoted in KR,
Countercoup
, 196–197; the shah quoted in ibid., 199.

12
. Woodhouse,
Something Ventured
, 135; Wilber,
Adventures in the Middle East
, 9, 189; MC,
Game Player
, 190–191.

13
. See Darioush Bayandor,
Iran and the CIA: The Fall of Mosaddeq Revisited
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

14
. Donald N. Wilber, “Overthrow of Premier Mosaddeq of Iran, November 1952-August 1953,” CIA Historical Paper No. 208, March 1954. For the full text of this document, and a useful discussion of the circumstances of its leaking, go to the excellent website of the National Security Archive,
http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28
. For a recent study focusing on Mosaddeq’s role, see Christopher de Bellaigue,
Patriot of Persia: Muhammad Mosaddeg and a Tragic Anglo-American Coup
(New York: Harper, 2012), 242–244.

15
. Amanat quoted in Meyer and Brysac,
Kingmakers
, 347.

16
. KR,
Arabs, Oil, and History
, 271.

17
. KR,
Countercoup, 2
.

18
. Woodhouse,
Something Ventured
, 120; Wilber, “Overthrow,” 6; KR,
Countercoup
, 115; Wilber, “Overthrow,” 94.

19
. KR,
Countercoup, 2
, 77, 85–86.

20
. Woodhouse, “Iran, 1950–1953”; Wilber, “Overthrow,” 36; KR,
Countercoup
, 59; FO minute, August 24, 1953, FO 371/104570, PRO; KR, “Memorandum of CIA Representative,” attached to Walter Bedell Smith to Dwight Eisenhower, no date [late August/early September, 1953], 32, Iran, 1953 through 1959 (8), International Series, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers as President of the United States, 1952–61 (Ann Whitman File) (hereafter AWF), DDEL.

21
. KR,
Countercoup
, 138; McClure to Jackson, September 14, 1953, 73, McClure, Robert, Jackson Papers, DDEL.

22
. KR,
Countercoup
, 140, 191, 172.

23
. Ibid., 205, 204; Wilber, “Overthrow,” 80; Lord Salisbury, Record of Conversation, August 26, 1953, PREM 11/514, PRO; Wilber, “Overthrow,” 84.

24
. KR, “Memorandum of CIA Representative”; KR,
Countercoup
, 207.

25
. J. A. Ford to D. B. Pitblado, September 2, 1953, PREM 11/514, PRO, quoting a letter from KR to William Strang; see KR, “Memorandum of CIA Representative”; KR,
Countercoup
, 209; Dwight D. Eisenhower,
The White House Years
, vol. 1,
Mandate for Change, 1953–1956
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963), 164.

26
. Richard and Gladys Harkness, “The Mysterious Doings of CIA,”
Saturday Evening Post
, November 6, 1954, 66, 68; Jonathan Roosevelt interview; Thomas Powers, “A Book Held Hostage,”
Nation
, April 12, 1980, 438, 437.

27
. Albert Hourani, “The Myth of T. E. Lawrence,” in
Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics, and Culture in Britain
, ed. Wm. Roger Louis (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), 23–24.

28
. Rudyard Kipling,
Kim: Authoritative Text, Backgrounds, Criticism
, ed. Zohreh T. Sullivan (New York: Norton, 2002), 176.

Thirteen: From ALPHA . . .

1
. Citation, September 23, 1953, I, 143, Roosevelt, Mary Gaddis (Polly), 1950–59, KRBRP. See also 45, National Security Medal, Confidential File, White House Central Files (hereafter WHCF), DDEL.

2
. “F.B.I. Chief Wins Medal for Work on Security,”
New York Times
, May 28, 1955, 4.