A History of Korea (52 page)

An early-nineteenth-century scholar, Ch
ŏ
ng Yak-yong, set forth the most comprehensive, progressive reform programs yet suggested. As a result of the
Sinyu saok,
or Catholic Persecution of 1801, Ch
ŏ
ng was banished for 18 years at Kangjin, Ch
ŏ
lla province, and forced into retirement for 17 more years in his hometown of Yangju, Ky
ŏ
nggi province, during which time he wrote more than 500 works. These included
Ky
ŏ
ngse yup’yo,
or Design for Good Government (1817),
Mongmin sims
ŏ
,
or Admonitions on Governing the People (1818), and
H
ŭ
mh
ŭ
m sins
ŏ
,
or For a New Jurisprudence (1822), in which he sharply analyzed and criticized the institutions and conditions of Chos
ŏ
n society. Comparing provincial governors, county magistrates, and local functionaries to robbers or rapacious birds, he wrote
Mongmin sims
ŏ
as a textbook to instruct these local officials on how to cultivate their moral culture. In
H
ŭ
mh
ŭ
m sins
ŏ
,
Ch
ŏ
ng Yakyong advanced his ideas on reforming the penal administration, and in
Ky
ŏ
ngse yup’yo
he proposed reforms in central and local government institutions. He maintained that the monarch should hold the reins of government and rule the people directly, with the assistance of local officials, but at the same time he believed that the people should be allowed to govern themselves as much as possible. He also suggested that wealthy farmers be appointed to government offices based on their contributions to the rural community. He proposed creating an agency to oversee science and technology. Regarding land, he urged that each village be allocated farmland to be run under a system of collective ownership and cultivation, in which individual peasants would receive shares of the harvest based on their labor contribution.

Sirhak emerged as a new intellectual movement starting in the early seventeenth century as an alternative to Neo-Confucianism which had degenerated into dogma. Sirhak scholars, ranging from Yu Hy
ŏ
ng-w
ŏ
n to Ch
ŏ
ng Yak-yong, especially advocated a “physiocracy,” in which they envisioned an ideal agricultural society based on independent, self-supporting farmers. They never realized their goal, however, as officialdom rejected their reform proposals.

Since the mid-eighteenth century a new school of thought arose among a group of scholars from the Old Doctrine faction, adding a new dimension to the development of Sirhak thought. As the new doctrine actively introduced cultural and institutional reforms borrowed from Qing China, then at its height, it became known as Pukhak, or Northern Learning. Although its proponents did not admire China, they ardently wished to model Chos
ŏ
n society after China’s, seeking to enrich the nation and secure the people’s livelihood by embracing Qing civilization and its commercial and manufacturing achievements.

The pioneer scholar of this Pukhak persuasion, Yu Su-w
ŏ
n, advanced a systematic plan for political, economic, social, and cultural reform in his major work
Us
ŏ
,
or Idle Jottings, which appeared in 1737. He proposed that Chos
ŏ
n transform its economic structure from one centered on agriculture to one based on commerce and manufacturing. In the new economy he envisioned, the yangban would engage in agriculture, commerce, and manufacturing. Instead of unrealistic land reform, he suggested that agricultural productivity might be improved through commercial management and the introduction of new technology. He also urged that merchants engage in joint ventures to enlarge the scale of commercial management and that they employ craftsmen in order to control production and marketing.

Hong Tae-yong saw in the natural sciences the essence of all spiritual activities, refuting the traditional Confucian conception of science and technology as marginal branches of knowledge. The reason for the earth’s rotation, the cause of eclipses, and the nature of rainbows, for example, were included among his valid scientific findings. He wrote an account of his travels to Qing China, titled
Y
ŏ
n’gi,
or Beijing Memoir, in 1765. In it, he denied that China was the center of the world, a view previously undisputed by scholars. He believed that Western science and technology surpassed anything that Chinese civilization could provide, and that the acceptance of Western learning would aid in Chos
ŏ
n’s development. He also thought that introducing new technology, eliminating yangban lineages, and rejecting Neo-Confucianism would enrich his nation.

Pak Chi-w
ŏ
n, who lived in retirement at Y
ŏ
nam of Kimch’
ŏ
n, Hwanghae province, declared that unique talents were bestowed on all men from heaven. He wrote the
Y
ŏ
rha ilgi,
or Rehe Diary, documenting his journey to Beijing, in 1780, in the entourage of a Chos
ŏ
n envoy. In that work he introduced Qing civilization and expressed his views on Chos
ŏ
n society, culture, and history.
Although he was concerned about the redistribution of farmland, he worried more about raising agricultural productivity by reforming farmland management, encouraging commercial farming, improving farming appliances, and expanding irrigation facilities. He also showed particular interest in the promotion of commerce and manufacturing, stressing the importance of transportaion by wagon and ship and the need for a stable currency. Finally, he strongly assailed the parasitic life of the yangban.

Pak Che-ga described his experiences in Beijing in
Pukhak
ŭ
i,
or Discourse on Northern Learning, which, like the work of Pak Chi-w
ŏ
n, addressed the need to reform Chos
ŏ
n society. It was this treatise, written in 1778, that gave rise to the term “Northern Learning.” In his work Pak Che-ga urged the fostering of commerce and manufacturing, transportation by wagon and ship, trade and commerce with Qing China, and the abolition of class distinctions. Clearly Chos
ŏ
n’s economic growth in the mid-eighteenth century owed much to the Pukhak-oriented scholars leading this new intellectual movement.

Wars with the Japanese and the Manchus inspired a national consciousness and patriotic spirit among Koreans, which stirred their interest in the nation’s history, geography, and culture. In his major work,
Chibong yus
ŏ
l,
Yi Su-gwang advised Koreans not to overestimate China and its civilization, and encouraged people to take pride in their history and relish the proclaimed fact of Korea’s more highly refined culture relative to that of China. He also claimed that ancient places presumed to have existed in the Korean peninsula were actually in Manchuria, thereby urging Koreans to remember the “lost territory of Manchuria.” Prepared at King Y
ŏ
ngjo’s command in 1770, the 250-volume work
Tongguk munh
ŏ
n pigo,
or Compilation of Reference Documents on the Eastern Kingdom, was a true encyclopedia of Korean studies offering a chronological overview of Korea’s geography, government, economy, and culture.

In the eighteenth century some important historical works based on the thorough study of old records appeared. In his
Tongguk y
ŏ
ktae ch’ongmok,
or Complete Account of Successive Generations of the Eastern Kingdom, written in 1705, Hong Man-jong claimed that Korean history began with Tan’gun Chos
ŏ
n as the first legitimate Korean nation and was succeeded by Kija Chos
ŏ
n, Mahan, and unified Silla, and that the period of the Three Kingdoms should not be considered a legitimate part of Korean history. He wrote a history of the dynasties of Kory
ŏ
and Chos
ŏ
n from the perspective of royal households.
His proclamation that Tan’gun Chos
ŏ
n was the first legitimate Korean nation was reinforced by the findings of An Ch
ŏ
ng-bok, who completed his
Tongsa kangmok,
or Annotated Account of Korean History, in 1778. An’s work presented a full chronology of Korean history from Tan’gun through the end of the Kory
ŏ
dynasty. His contribution to Korean historiography emphasized the roles of the common people who expelled foreign invaders, and he blamed the ruling classes for having devoted themselves only to the exploitation of the people. His work made a lasting impression on such modern historians as Pak
Ŭ
n-sik and Sin Ch’ae-ho. In 1797 Yi K
ŭ
ng-ik wrote
Y
ŏ
lly
ŏ
sil kisul,
or Narratives of Y
ŏ
lly
ŏ
sil, which, based on his research of more than 400 unofficial histories, provided descriptions of the major events in each Chos
ŏ
n king’s reign through King Sukchong.

At the time the consensus among Korean scholars was that Korea’s scope of activity extended beyond the Korean peninsula into Manchuria. In his work,
Tongsa,
or History of Korea, which appeared in 1803 after the author’s death, Yi Chong-hwi emphasized the role played by the Kogury
ŏ
kingdom in Manchuria. He also claimed that old territories of Puy
ŏ
and Parhae in Manchuria were under the domain of the Korean people. Yu T
ŭ
k-kong’s
Parhae ko,
or Study of the Parhae Kingdom, written in 1784, placed Parhae on an equal footing with unified Silla, suggesting for the first time the idea of the period of the “Northern and Southern States.” In agreement, Han Ch’i-yun’s
Haedong y
ŏ
ksa,
or History East of the Sea (Korea), compiled in 1823, which covered the kingdoms of Kogury
ŏ
and Parhae in detail, viewed the latter as integral to Korean history.

Studies of historical geography also developed alongside those of historical scholarship. The pioneer work in this field of study was
Tongguk chiri chi,
or Treatise on the Geography of the Eastern Kingdom, written by Han Paek-gy
ŏ
m in 1640. Han’s work gave impetus to the study of historical geography with its new inquiries into the names of ancient places. Han asserted that Old Chos
ŏ
n and the three Han federations had been situated, respectively, north and south of the Han River. He was also the first to provide proof that Kogury
ŏ
was not established in the area of S
ŏ
ngch’
ŏ
n, P’y
ŏ
ngan province, as was generally accepted at the time, but was located in Manchuria, and this greatly influenced later studies of Korean history. His work was succeeded by Sin Ky
ŏ
ng-jun, who wrote
Kanggye chi,
or Treatise on Domains, in 1756.

A major work on cultural geography was
T’aengni chi,
or Treatise on the Ecology of Korea, also known as
P’ary
ŏ
k chi,
or Treatise on the Eight Provinces, written by Yi Chung-hwan in 1751. Based on geomantic theories, it covered
the economies, politics, customs, and community values of Chos
ŏ
n’s eight provinces. Important geographical work included Sin Ky
ŏ
ng-jun’s
Toro ko,
or Study of Routes and Roads, appeared in 1770, and his
Sansu ky
ŏ
ng,
or Study of Mountains and Rivers, written in the mid-18th century. Also, Ch
ŏ
ng Sang-gi completed
Tongguk chido,
or Map of the Eastern Kingdom, in 1728, and his invention of an ingenious scaling device encouraged the development of Korean cartography. He greatly influenced Kim Ch
ŏ
ng-ho who, in 1861, drew up
Taedong y
ŏ
jido,
or A Detailed Map of Korea.

Interest in the study of Korea gave rise to the study of the Korean alphabet, han’g
ŭ
l. Sin Ky
ŏ
ng-jun wrote
Hunmin ch
ŏ
ng
ŭ
m unhae,
or Explication of
Han’g
ŭ
l,
in 1750, and Yu H
ŭ
i completed his work,
Ŏ
nmun chi,
or Treatise on
Han’g
ŭ
l,
in 1824. These works introduced several views concerning the origins, forms, and phonemes of han’g
ŭ
l.

During this period Chos
ŏ
n scholars and scientists accepted Western civilization from China on the basis of their own scientific and technological achievements. This helped spark the development of science and technology in the country, which greatly strengthened the nation and helped spur industrial growth.

Interest in farm management and agricultural technology encouraged many publications on agriculture, such as
Nongga chips
ŏ
ng,
or Compilation for Farmers, written by Sin Sok in 1655, introducing advanced technology for rice cultivation. Appearing in 1676, Pak Se-dang’s
Saekky
ŏ
ng,
or Farming Manual, focused on the cultivation of fruit trees, the raising of livestock, horticulture, irrigation, and weather. Hong Man-s
ŏ
n, in 1710, wrote
Sallim ky
ŏ
ngje,
or Farm Management, a small encyclopedic work considered to be the first Korean text on natural science and technology, dealing with many topics concerning agriculture and the daily lives of farmers.
Haedong nongs
ŏ
,
or Work on Farming East of the Sea (Korea), compiled by S
ŏ
Ho-su in the late eighteenth century, was the first work to systematize Korea’s agricultural science by emphasizing indigenous Korean agriculture and accepting certain agricultural techniques from China.