1916 (71 page)

One response to this line of analysis was given by Páraic MacBheatha of Navan, Co. Meath. He argued that, given the inchoate nature of the law of war in 1916, it ‘was too ambiguous to either prohibit or permit armed insurrection’; but that the right to national self-determination was internationally recognised.
¹⁵²
Picking up on this point, a contributor to the
Irish Independent
noted the irony of critics of the Rising having ‘no problem in accepting the legitimacy of the Belgian people, with foreign support, resisting by force the German occupiers of their country; but at the same time … [rejecting] the right of the Irish people to do the same thing’.
¹⁵³
Finally Barry Andrews noted that the deaths of combatants on both sides ‘was a consequence of a quest for national self-determination’ – although, it should be noted, such a defence was of limited relevance in the case of civilian casualties.
¹⁵⁴

The most moving contribution to this aspect of the wider debate – indeed, in the view of this author, the single most moving piece of writing to emerge during the entire commemoration – came from a rather surprising source. Rhonda Paisely, daughter of Ian, wrote in plaintive terms, in Cork’s
Evening Echo
on the Wednesday prior to the parade, of the immorality of
all
war. While expressing support for the preservation of the GPO, and hostility to both monarchy and partition, she equally clearly expressed her resentment ‘that by bloody conflict and through death, destruction and terror I am supposed to submit to those who want to achieve an all-Ireland Republic’. Easter 1916, to her, was ‘the woman standing forlorn in the street in Omagh, clothes rent’. ‘How dreadful,’ she wrote, ‘that the sacrifice of the permanent on the altar of the immediate is the ongoing theme of our island’s history.’

It was a most dignified conclusion.

C
ONCLUTION

The rows anticipated – nay, started – by President Mary McAleese continued well into the year. They will, no doubt, flare up again sooner rather than later – not least, of course, because it is in the interest of journalists and historians that they should do so. But what, if any, are the lessons to be drawn from this extended national ‘think-in’? At the height of the commemoration debate Martin Mansergh laid down a marker on this point that bears consideration: ‘The ninetieth commemoration [of the Rising] sets about the long overdue task of separating out what is valuable, noble and enduring in the Irish republican tradition, and what can by any international standard be regarded as legitimate.’
¹⁵⁵
Based on the foregoing discussion it is abundantly clear that, as far as the overwhelming majority of the public were concerned, the ‘valuable, noble and enduring’ elements of that historic tradition were widely, and passionately, cherished, the rhetorical assaults it had endured for over three decades notwithstanding.

The post-revisonists had indeed won the argument, as Diarmuid Ferriter concluded.
¹⁵⁶
That victory was not based, as some would claim, on a triumph of sentiment over reason, but on the triumph of one form of reasoned sentiment over another. It was the revisionists who were found to be guilty of living in the past – the same intellectual crime that had, of course, formed part of their indictment of unreconstructed nationalist historiography. It was they who were shown to be incapable of moving with the times. And it was they who were forced to rely on stale arguments that fell on increasingly unreceptive ears.

They faced a superior enemy on the battlefield of public opinion, and lost without much of a fight.

Few mourned their defeat.

Preface:

1. This point is more fully developed in chapter 2, ‘Irish independence: rationale and timing’, of my book,
   Reflections on the Irish state
   , IAP, Dublin, 2003.
   
2. Ó Broin, Leon,
   Revolutionary underground: the story of the Irish Republican
   Brotherhood 1858–1924
   , Gill & Macmillan, Dublin, 1976, pp. 165–66.
   
3. FitzGerald, Garret (ed.),
   Desmond’s Rising: memoirs 1913 to Easter 1916
   , Liberties, Dublin, 2006, p. 143.
   
4. McGee, Owen,
   The IRB: the Irish Republican Brotherhood, from the Land
   League to Sinn Féin
   , Four Courts, Dublin, 2005, p. 356.
   
5. Irish Times
   , 4 December 1981.
   
6. Keogh, Dermot,
   Twentieth century Ireland: nation and state
   , Gill & Macmillan, Dublin, 1994, p. 289.
   
7. Irish Times
   , 8 April 1966.
   

Introduction:

1. Useful commentaries on the phenomenon are contained in Bort, Eberhard, ‘Commemorating Ireland: towards an inclusive culture of commemoration? An introduction’ in Bort, Eberhard (ed.),
   Commemorating Ireland: history, politics, culture
   , IAP, Dublin, 2004, pp. 1–11; and MacBride, Ian, ‘Introduction: memory and national identity in modern Ireland’ in Mac-Bride, Ian (ed.),
   History and memory in modern Ireland
   , CUP, Cambridge, 2001, pp. 1–42. See also Walker, Brian,
   Dancing to history’s tune: history, myth and politics in Ireland
   , IIS, Belfast, 1996; and Dolan, Anne,
   Commemorating the Irish civil war: history and memory, 1923–2000
   , CUP, Cambridge, 2003.
   
2. See, for example, Póirtéir, Cathal (ed.),
   The Great Irish famine
   , Mercier, Cork, 1995; Crawford, E. Margaret (ed.),
   The hungry stream: essays on famine and emigration
   , IIS, Belfast, 1997; Gribben, Arthur (ed.),
   The great famine and the Irish diaspora in America
   , UMP, Amherst, 1999; Brown, Michael, Geoghegan, Patrick M., and Kelly, James (eds),
   The Irish Act of Union: bicentennial essays
   , IAP, Dublin, 2003. The monumental work
   1798: a bicentennial celebration
   , published by Four Courts, Dublin in 2003 and edited by Thomas Bartlett, David Dickson, Dáire Keogh and Kevin Whelan, stands in a class of its own in this regard.
   
3. These include Martin, F.X. (ed),
   Leaders and men of the Easter Rising: Dublin 1916
   , Methuen, London, 1967; Martin, F.X. (ed.),
   The Easter Rising, 1916, and University College Dublin
   , Browne and Nolan, Dublin 1967; Dudley Edwards, Owen and Pyle, Fergus (eds),
   1916: the Easter Rising
   , MacGibbon and Kee, London, 1968; Nowlan, K.B. (ed.),
   The making of 1916: studies in the history of the Rising
   , Stationery Office, Dublin, 1969; and Ní Dhonnchadha, Máirín and Dorgan, Theo (eds),
   Revising the Rising
   , Field Day, Derry, 1991.
   

Europe and the Irish crisis, 1900–17:

1. Keogh, Dermot,
   Ireland and Europe, 1919–1948
   , Gill & Macmillan, Dublin, 1988, p. 2.
   
2. Joseph Lee in O’Driscoll, Mervyn,
   Ireland, Germany and the Nazis; politics and diplomacy, 1919–1939
   , Four Courts, Dublin, 2004, comment on back cover.
   
3. Murphy, John A.,
   The French are in the bay: the expedition to Bantry Bay 1796
   , Mercier, Cork, 1997.
   
4. Service historique de l’armée de terre, Vincennes; attachés militaires, 7N1231, chemise 3, report of 27 October 1902. See also Campbell, Christy,
   Fenian fire; the British government plot to assassinate Queen Victoria
   , HarperCollins, London, 2002, which illustrates Russian interest in Ireland.
   
5. Milza, Pierre,
   Les relations internationales de 1871 à 1914
   , Armand Colin, Paris, 2003, pp. 117–24.
   
6. Herwig, Holger H.,
   The First World War: Germany and Austria­Hungary, 1914–1918
   , Arnold, London, 1997, pp. 46–49.
   
7. Ibid
   ., pp. 104–5.
   
8. Geheimes Staatsarchiv, Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; Hauptabteilung VI, Nachlasse Schiemann, nr 62, Freeman to Schiemann, 10 May 1906.
   
9. Ibid
   ., Freeman to Schiemann, 31 May 1907 and 9 July 1907.
   
10. Prill, Felician,
    Ireland, Britain and Germany 1870–1914: problems of nationalism and religion in nineteenth century Europe
    , Gill & Macmillan, Dublin, 1975, pp. 111–12, 174, endnote 24.
    
11. Hünseler, Wolgang,
    Das Deutsche Kaiserreich und die Irische Frage, 1900–1914
    , Peter Lang, Frankfurt, p. 87 and footnote 40.
    
12. Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv, Berlin; England no 80, R5866, secret report from Mensdorff to Aehrenthal, 17 November 1908.
    
13. Ibid
    ., England no 80, 5R866, Freeman to Schiemann, 31 October 1909.
    
14. Geheimes Staatsarchiv, Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; Hauptabteilung VI, Nachlasse Schiemann, nr 62, Freeman to Schiemann, 20 July 1915.
    
15. Stewart, A.T.Q.,
    The Ulster crisis: resistance to home rule, 1912–1914
    , Black-staff, Belfast, 1997, p. 158.
    
16. Unfortunately, the old ledgers of the Steyr factory in upper Austria reveal nothing more about the export of the 10,900 Mannlicher and 9,100 Mauser rifles for the UVF. One of the ledgers mentions Benny Spiro’s name. Spiro was a German arms dealer who sold the rifles to Major Frederick Crawford of the UVF. The author is grateful to Professor Rudolf Agstner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Vienna for this information.
    
17. Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Politisches Archiv, Vienna; Abteilung VIII, England, box 151, report 18C, 24 April 1914, folio 168–9, ‘Aufzeichnungen Baron Franckensteins über Home Rule-Frage’, missing.
    
18. Pethö, Albert,
    Agenten für den Doppeladler; Österreich­Ungarns Geheimer Dienst im Weltkrieg
    , Leopold Stocker Verlag, Graz, 1998, p. 323.
    
19. Franckenstein,
    Sir George, Facts and features of my life
    , Cassells, London, 1939, pp. 127, 131 and 144–45.
    
20. Stewart,
    The Ulster crisis
    , pp. 228–29.
    
21. Ibid
    ., p. 226.
    
22. Ministère des Affaires Étrangères Belge, Brussels; microfilm P175, correspondance politique: légations, Allemagne, Henri Beyens to Jacques Davignon (Minister of Foreign Affairs), 26 July 1914.
    
23. Hünseler, Das
    Deutsche Kaiserreich und die Irische Frage
    , 1900–1914, p.256.
    
24. Rauchensteiner, Manfried,
    Der Tod des Doppeladlers: Österreich–Ungarn und der Erste Weltkrieg
    , Verlag Styria, Graz, 1993, p. 91.
    
25. Morton, Frederic,
    Thunder at twilight; Vienna 1913–1914
    , Methuen, London, 2001, p. 306.
    
26. ‘Die Österreich-Ungarischen Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch’, Ladislaus Szögyéni to Leopold Berchtold, 12 July 1914, in
    http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1914/austdocs
    (consulted on 29 June 2002).
    
27. Brock, Michael and Eleanor (eds),
    H.H. Asquith: letters to Venetia Stanley
    , OUP, Oxford, 1985, pp. 135–37 and footnote 2.
    
28. Feldmarschall Conrad,
    Aus meiner Dienstzeit, 1906–1918
    , Rikola Verlag, Vienna, 1923, vol. iv, p. 172.
    
29. Hünseler,
    Das Deutsche Kaiserreich und die Irische Frage
    , 1900–1914, pp.262–63 and footnote 151.
    
30. ‘Die Osterreichisch-Ungarischen zum Kriegsausbruch’ Mensdorff to Berchtold 3 August 1914, in
    http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1914/austdocs
    (consulted on 29 June 2002)
    
31. Mitchell, Angus,
    Casement
    , Haus, London, 2003, p. 50.
    
32. Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv, Berlin; England no 80, R5869, Bernstorff to Auswärtiges Amt (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 26 September 1914.
    
33. Andrew, Christopher,
    Secret service; the making of the British intelligence community
    , Heinemann, London, 1985, pp. 87, 90–91.
    
34. Hans-Dieter Kluge,
    Irland in der Deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft: Politik und Propaganda vor 1914 und im Ersten Weltkrieg
    , Peter Lang, Frankfurt, 1985, p. 180.
    
35. Wolf, Karin,
    Sir Roger Casement und die Deutsch–Irischen Beziehungen, Duncker
    , Berlin, 1972, p. 80, footnote 53.
    
36. Roth, Andreas, ‘“The German soldier is not tactful”: Sir Roger Casement and the Irish brigade in Germany during the First World War’ in
    The Irish Sword
    , vol. xix, no. 78, 1995, p. 318.
    
37. Wolf,
    Sir Roger Casement und die Deutsch–Irischen Beziehungen
    , p. 35.
    
38. Mitchell,
    Casement
    , pp. 105–6.
    
39. Kluge,
    Irland in der Deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft
    , p. 110.
    
40. Ibid
    ., p. 118.
    
41. Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, Freiburg; Admiral Karl von Truppel papers, N224/13, report of 23 August 1914.
    
42. Foy, Michael and Barton, Brian,
    The Easter Rising
    , Sutton, Stroud, 2004, pp. 15, 19–20.
    
43. Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv, Berlin; WK nr 11K, Bd. 9, R21161–1 (microfilm), Rudolf Nadolny to Auswärtiges Amt, containing Casement/ Plunkett report, 8 June 1915.
    
44. Doerries, Reinhard (ed.),
    Prelude to the Easter Rising: Sir Roger Casement in imperial Germany
    Frank Cass, London, 2000, pp. 14–15.
    
45. Kluge,
    Irland in der Deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft
    , p. 139.
    
46. Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv, Berlin; IA Weltkrieg, WK 11k, Bd. 11, R21163–1 (microfilm), Bernstorff to Auswärtiges Amt, containing Devoy’s report, 16 February 1916.
    
47. Herwig,
    The First World War: Germany and Austria­Hungary, 1914–1918
    , pp. 180–83.
    
48. Ibid
    ., pp. 286–88.
    
49. Spindler, Captain Karl,
    The mystery of the Casement ship
    , Anvil, Tralee, 1965, pp. 197–98.
    
50. Herwig,
    The First World War; Germany and Austria­Hungary, 1914–1918
    , pp. 263–64.
    
51. Spindler,
    The mystery of the Casement ship
    , pp. 33–48, 188–89 and 200–1.
    
52. Doerries (ed.),
    Prelude to the Easter Rising
    , p. 21.
    
53. Holmes, Richard,
    The little field marshal: a life of Sir John French
    , Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 2004, pp. 322–23.
    
54. aan de Wiel, Jérôme,
    The Catholic church in Ireland, 1914–1918: war and politics
    , IAP, Dublin, 2003, pp. 219–20.
    
55. Ibid
    ., p. 85.
    
56. Ibid
    ., pp. 79–87. See also aan de Wiel, Jérôme, ‘Easter Rising 1916: Count Plunkett’s letter to Pope Benedict XV’ in
    The Irish Sword
    , vol. xxiv, no. 96, winter 2004, pp. 219–32, for the entire letter in French with a translation in English and a commentary.
    
57. Spindler,
    The mystery of the Casement ship
    , p. 86.
    
58. Andrew,
    Secret service
    , p. 204.
    
59. O’Halpin, Eunan, ‘British intelligence in Ireland, 1914–1921’ in Andrew, Christopher and Dilks, David (eds),
    The missing dimension: governments and intelligence communities in the twentieth century
    , Macmillan, London, 1984, p. 59.
    
60. Bourne, J.M.
    Who’s who in World War One
    , Routledge, London, 2001, p.99.
    
61. O’Halpin,
    British intelligence in Ireland
    , 1914–1921, pp. 57–8.
    
62. Mitchell,
    Casement
    , pp. 112–13.
    
63. Andrew,
    Secret service
    , p. 247.
    
64. Herwig,
    The First World War: Germany and Austria­Hungary, 1914–1918
    , pp. 287–88.
    
65. Fitzpatrick, David,
    The two Irelands, 1912–1939
    , OUP, Oxford, 1998, p.61.
    
66. Holmes,
    The little field marshal
    , p. 325.
    
67. Service historique de l’armée de terre, Vincennes; attachés militaires, 7N1253, report of de la Panouse, 25 April 1916 and undated report (probably end April 1916).
    
68. Ibid
    ., grand quartier général, 16N2968, de la Panouse to Joffre, 19 June 1916.
    
69. Herwig,
    The First World War: Germany and Austria­Hungary, 1914–1918
    , pp. 230–31, 274 and 277–78.
    
70. Reichspost, 29 April 1916, ANNO (AustriaN Newspapers Online), Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna,
    http://anno.onb.ac.at
    .
    
71. Pester Lloyd
    , 5 May 1916, ANNO.
    
72. Auswärtiges Amt, Politisches Archiv, Berlin; WK nr 11K, Bd. 11, R21163–3 (microfilm), Freyer to Nicolai, reports of 28 and 29 April, and 2, 5 and 7 May 1916.
    
73. Service historique de l’armée de terre, Vincennes; Grand Quartier Général, 16N2968, fiche no 523, containing report of 29 April 1916.
    
74. Kluge
    , Irland in der Deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft
    , pp. 156–57 and 369, footnote 178.
    
75. Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, Freiburg; Admiralstab der Marine 1899–1919, RM5/4757 (microfilm), reports of 9 and 23 December 1916 and 25 January 1917.
    
76. Kluge,
    Irland in der Deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft
    , p. 269.
    
77. Herwig,
    The First World War: Germany and Austria­Hungary, 1914–1918
    , pp. 315–16.
    
78. Kluge,
    Irland in der Deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft
    , p. 160.
    
79. O’Brien, William and Ryan, Desmond (eds),
    Devoy’s postbag, 1880–1928
    , IAP edition, Dublin, 1979, vol. ii, pp. 512–13.
    
80. Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, Freiburg; Admiralstab der Marine 1899–1919, RM5/4557 (microfilm), Bernstorff to Auswärtiges Amt, 17 January 1917, containing report of Irish revolutionary directory of America, 8 January 1917.
    
81. CO 904/186, reports of 13 March 1917, containing statement of Irish under secretary (17 February 1917) and under secretary to chief secretary (17 February 1917) and Green to under secretary, 22 February 1917 (containing list), National Archives, Kew.
    
82. Murphy, Brian P.,
    Patrick Pearse and the lost republican ideal
    , James Duffy, Dublin, 1991, pp. 80–81.
    
83. O’Halpin, ‘British Intelligence in Ireland, 1914–1921’, p. 60.
    
84. CO 904/186, William Patrick Byrne to chief secretary, 17 February 1917 and ‘Question and answer in the House of Commons on 21st of March’ and Mahon to chief secretary, 18 February 1917, National Archives, Kew.
    
85. Tuchman, Barbara,
    The Zimmermann telegram: how the USA entered the Great War
    , Papermac, London, 1988, pp. 155–57.