Seven Events That Made America America (43 page)
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64
Sandra Mackey,
The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation
(New York: Dutton, 1996), 215, 264-65.
Sandra Mackey,
The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation
(New York: Dutton, 1996), 215, 264-65.
66
Nikki Keddie,
Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 235.
Nikki Keddie,
Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 235.
68
David Harris,
The Crisis: The President, the Prophet, and the Shah: 1979, the Coming of Militant Islam
(Boston: Little, Brown, 2004), 401-2.
David Harris,
The Crisis: The President, the Prophet, and the Shah: 1979, the Coming of Militant Islam
(Boston: Little, Brown, 2004), 401-2.
69
Ibid., 402.
Ibid., 402.
70
Ibid.
Ibid.
71
Bernard Lewis,
The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror
(New York: Modern Library, 2003), 162.
Bernard Lewis,
The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror
(New York: Modern Library, 2003), 162.
72
Larry Schweikart,
America’s Victories: Why the U.S. Wins Wars and Will Win the War on Terror
(New York: Sentinel, 2007), 18.
Larry Schweikart,
America’s Victories: Why the U.S. Wins Wars and Will Win the War on Terror
(New York: Sentinel, 2007), 18.
73
John Laffin,
The Arab Mind Considered: A Need for Understanding
(New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1975), 23-24. See also David Leo Gutmann, “Shame, Honor and Terror in the Middle East,”
http://www.frontpagemagazine.com
, October 24, 2003.
John Laffin,
The Arab Mind Considered: A Need for Understanding
(New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1975), 23-24. See also David Leo Gutmann, “Shame, Honor and Terror in the Middle East,”
http://www.frontpagemagazine.com
, October 24, 2003.
75
NSPG 0072, “October 14, 1983 (Middle East), Box 2, Executive Secretariat, NSC: National Security Planning Group, RL. The same NSPG memo emphasized working with Arab “moderates.”
NSPG 0072, “October 14, 1983 (Middle East), Box 2, Executive Secretariat, NSC: National Security Planning Group, RL. The same NSPG memo emphasized working with Arab “moderates.”
77
Ibid.
Ibid.
78
Ibid., 452.
Ibid., 452.
79
“French Troops Heard Blast at Marine Headquarters, Then . . .” The Associated Press, October 30, 1983.
“French Troops Heard Blast at Marine Headquarters, Then . . .” The Associated Press, October 30, 1983.
81
“Interview, Caspar Weinberger.”
“Interview, Caspar Weinberger.”
82
Ibid.
Ibid.
83
Ibid.
Ibid.
85
Ibid.
Ibid.
88
Cable, 2025, printed December 14, 1983, folder “Lebanon, Marine Explosion, October 23-November 3, 1983,” (4), Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Country File, RL.
Cable, 2025, printed December 14, 1983, folder “Lebanon, Marine Explosion, October 23-November 3, 1983,” (4), Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Country File, RL.
89
Cable from U.S. embassy in Beirut referenced in “Lebanon, Marine Explosion October 23-November 3, 1983,” (4), Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Country File, RL.
Cable from U.S. embassy in Beirut referenced in “Lebanon, Marine Explosion October 23-November 3, 1983,” (4), Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Country File, RL.
90
“The Terrorist Threat to US Personnel in Beirut,” January 12, 1984, cited in cable from U.S. embassy in Beirut to Middle East and major embassies, Box 43, Executive Secretariat, NSC, Country File, RL.
“The Terrorist Threat to US Personnel in Beirut,” January 12, 1984, cited in cable from U.S. embassy in Beirut to Middle East and major embassies, Box 43, Executive Secretariat, NSC, Country File, RL.
92
“Lebanon Bombing, October 23-24, 1983,” Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Cable Files, RL.
“Lebanon Bombing, October 23-24, 1983,” Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Cable Files, RL.
93
E-mail from Paul Kengor to Larry Schweikart, May 7, 2009.
E-mail from Paul Kengor to Larry Schweikart, May 7, 2009.
94
“Congressman Bill Nichols, Armed Services Committee, Report on Beirut Security,” December 21, 1983, ND016 186262, RL.
“Congressman Bill Nichols, Armed Services Committee, Report on Beirut Security,” December 21, 1983, ND016 186262, RL.
96
One of the most impressive letters in the Reagan Library came from a Grenada vet, a staff sergeant named Ferdinand Rivera (n.d.): “I have never voted for a public official [but] you have
B-[s]
and yes I am voting this year . . . if you stay on” (ND016 184434, RL). It was written on cardboard, which apparently puzzled Reagan, until a second “cardboard letter” followed, from Sgt. Kevin McCarthy (October 21, 1983), in which Reagan replied, “You must be a friend of Sgt. Rivera—he sent me a letter on a piece of cardboard too” (ND016 188551, December 12, 1983, RL). Also noteworthy in the Reagan files are the remarkable number of letters from civilians offering to volunteer in Grenada and Lebanon to lend expertise, skills, and time.
One of the most impressive letters in the Reagan Library came from a Grenada vet, a staff sergeant named Ferdinand Rivera (n.d.): “I have never voted for a public official [but] you have
B-[s]
and yes I am voting this year . . . if you stay on” (ND016 184434, RL). It was written on cardboard, which apparently puzzled Reagan, until a second “cardboard letter” followed, from Sgt. Kevin McCarthy (October 21, 1983), in which Reagan replied, “You must be a friend of Sgt. Rivera—he sent me a letter on a piece of cardboard too” (ND016 188551, December 12, 1983, RL). Also noteworthy in the Reagan files are the remarkable number of letters from civilians offering to volunteer in Grenada and Lebanon to lend expertise, skills, and time.
97
These and other correspondence of support and opposition are in the ND016 files. See ND016-144980, 1175774, and 176040, various dates, all in RL.
These and other correspondence of support and opposition are in the ND016 files. See ND016-144980, 1175774, and 176040, various dates, all in RL.
98
ND016 175705-80, various dates, RL.
ND016 175705-80, various dates, RL.
99
ND016 176298, October 24, 1983, RL.
ND016 176298, October 24, 1983, RL.
100
ND016 18272, October 27, 1983, RL.
ND016 18272, October 27, 1983, RL.
102
John Prados,
Presidents’ Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations from World War II to the Persian Gulf
(Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), 379.
John Prados,
Presidents’ Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations from World War II to the Persian Gulf
(Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), 379.
106
Reginald C. Stuart,
The Half-Way Pacifist: Thomas Jefferson’s View of War
(Toronto: University of Toronto, 1978); Joseph Whelan,
Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror 1801-1805
(New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003).
Reginald C. Stuart,
The Half-Way Pacifist: Thomas Jefferson’s View of War
(Toronto: University of Toronto, 1978); Joseph Whelan,
Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror 1801-1805
(New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003).
107
McFarlane, “From Beirut to 9/11.”
McFarlane, “From Beirut to 9/11.”
108
“Marine Explosion, October 23-November 3, 1983,” Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Country File, RL.
“Marine Explosion, October 23-November 3, 1983,” Box 41, Executive Secretariat, NSC: Country File, RL.
109
Bin Laden quoted in Mark Silverberg, “Paper Tiger,”
http://www.jfednepa.org/mark%20silverberg/papertiger.html
.
Bin Laden quoted in Mark Silverberg, “Paper Tiger,”
http://www.jfednepa.org/mark%20silverberg/papertiger.html
.
110
John Miller, “Greetings, America. My Name is Osama bin Laden,”
Esquire
, February 1999, 96-103. See also John J. Miller, Michael Stone, and Chris Mitchell,
The Cell: Inside the 9/11 Plot, and Why the FBI and CIA Failed to Stop It
(New York: Hyperion Books, 2003).
CHAPTER 7John Miller, “Greetings, America. My Name is Osama bin Laden,”
Esquire
, February 1999, 96-103. See also John J. Miller, Michael Stone, and Chris Mitchell,
The Cell: Inside the 9/11 Plot, and Why the FBI and CIA Failed to Stop It
(New York: Hyperion Books, 2003).
1
See John Ziegler’s film
Media Malpractice: How Obama Got Elected
, 2009,
http://howobamagotelected.com/
.
See John Ziegler’s film
Media Malpractice: How Obama Got Elected
, 2009,
http://howobamagotelected.com/
.
2
James L. Moses, “Journalistic Impartiality on the Eve of Revolution: The
Boston Evening Post
, 1770-1775
,
”
Journalism History
20 (Autumn-Winter 1994): 125-30. See also Bernard Bailyn and John Hench, eds.,
The Press and the American Revolution
(Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981).
James L. Moses, “Journalistic Impartiality on the Eve of Revolution: The
Boston Evening Post
, 1770-1775
,
”
Journalism History
20 (Autumn-Winter 1994): 125-30. See also Bernard Bailyn and John Hench, eds.,
The Press and the American Revolution
(Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981).
3
Thomas C. Leonard,
The Power of the Press The Birth of Political Reporting
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
Thomas C. Leonard,
The Power of the Press The Birth of Political Reporting
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
4
Donald Lewis Shaw, “At the Crossroads: Change and Continuity in American Press News, 1820-1860,”
Journalism History
8 (Summer 1981): 38-50 (quotation on 48).
Donald Lewis Shaw, “At the Crossroads: Change and Continuity in American Press News, 1820-1860,”
Journalism History
8 (Summer 1981): 38-50 (quotation on 48).
5
Gerald Baldasty,
The Commercialization of News in the Nineteenth Century
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 47. See also Frederic Hudson,
Journalism in the United States from 1690 to 1872
(New York: Harper and Bros., 1873), 432-33.
Gerald Baldasty,
The Commercialization of News in the Nineteenth Century
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 47. See also Frederic Hudson,
Journalism in the United States from 1690 to 1872
(New York: Harper and Bros., 1873), 432-33.
7
L. Edward Carter, “The Revolution in Journalism During the Civil War,”
Lincoln Herald
73 (Winter 1971): 229-24 (quotation on 230). See also J. C. Andrews,
The North Reports the Civil War
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955), 6-34; Edwin Emery and Henry Ladd Smith,
The Press and America
(New York: Prentice-Hall, 1954); and Havilah Babcock, “The Press and the Civil War,”
Journalism Quarterly
6 (1929): 1-5.
L. Edward Carter, “The Revolution in Journalism During the Civil War,”
Lincoln Herald
73 (Winter 1971): 229-24 (quotation on 230). See also J. C. Andrews,
The North Reports the Civil War
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955), 6-34; Edwin Emery and Henry Ladd Smith,
The Press and America
(New York: Prentice-Hall, 1954); and Havilah Babcock, “The Press and the Civil War,”
Journalism Quarterly
6 (1929): 1-5.
8
Carter, “The Revolution in Journalism,” 231; Jeffrey A. Smith,
War and Press Freedom
(New York: Oxford University Press, 199), 103.
Carter, “The Revolution in Journalism,” 231; Jeffrey A. Smith,
War and Press Freedom
(New York: Oxford University Press, 199), 103.
9
Smith,
War and Press Freedom
, 104-5. See also David T. Z. Mindich, “Edwin M. Stanton, the Inverted Pyramid, and Information Control,”
Journalism Monographs
140 (August 1999).
Smith,
War and Press Freedom
, 104-5. See also David T. Z. Mindich, “Edwin M. Stanton, the Inverted Pyramid, and Information Control,”
Journalism Monographs
140 (August 1999).
10
Dan Schiller,
Objectivity and the News: The Public and the Rise of Commercial Journalism
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 4.
Dan Schiller,
Objectivity and the News: The Public and the Rise of Commercial Journalism
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 4.
11
James Carey, “The Dark Continent of American Journalism,” in Evea Stryker Munson and Catherine A. Warren, eds.,
James Carey: A Critical Reader
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 144-90 (quotation on 161).
James Carey, “The Dark Continent of American Journalism,” in Evea Stryker Munson and Catherine A. Warren, eds.,
James Carey: A Critical Reader
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 144-90 (quotation on 161).
13
Sheldon R. Gawiser and G. Evans Witt,
A Journalist’s Guide to Public Opinion Polls
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 13.
Sheldon R. Gawiser and G. Evans Witt,
A Journalist’s Guide to Public Opinion Polls
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994), 13.
14
Ford Risley, “The Confederate Press Association: Cooperative News Reporting of the War,”
Civil War History
47 (September 2001): 222-39.
Ford Risley, “The Confederate Press Association: Cooperative News Reporting of the War,”
Civil War History
47 (September 2001): 222-39.
15
Thrasher quoted in Risley, “Confederate Press Association,” 231.
Thrasher quoted in Risley, “Confederate Press Association,” 231.
16
Quoted in Risley, “Confederate Press Association,” 231.
Quoted in Risley, “Confederate Press Association,” 231.
19
David T. Z. Mindich,
Just the Facts
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 67-68. Also see Donald L. Shaw, “At the Crossroads: Change and Continuity in American Press News, 1820-1860,”
Journalism History
8 (Summer 1981): 38-50, and “News Bias and the Telegraph: A Study of Historical Change,”
Journalism Quarterly
44 (Spring 1967): 3-31; and Michael Schudson,
Discovering the News
(New York: Basic Books, 1978).
David T. Z. Mindich,
Just the Facts
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 67-68. Also see Donald L. Shaw, “At the Crossroads: Change and Continuity in American Press News, 1820-1860,”
Journalism History
8 (Summer 1981): 38-50, and “News Bias and the Telegraph: A Study of Historical Change,”
Journalism Quarterly
44 (Spring 1967): 3-31; and Michael Schudson,
Discovering the News
(New York: Basic Books, 1978).
21
Harlan S. Stensaas, “Development of the Objectivity Ethic in U.S. Daily Newspapers,”
Journal of Mass Media Ethics
2 (Fall/Winter 1986-1987): 50-60; and Shaw, “At the Crossroads.”
Harlan S. Stensaas, “Development of the Objectivity Ethic in U.S. Daily Newspapers,”
Journal of Mass Media Ethics
2 (Fall/Winter 1986-1987): 50-60; and Shaw, “At the Crossroads.”
23
William G. Bovee, “Horace Greeley and Social Responsibility,”
Journalism Quarterly
63 (Summer 1986): 251-59.
William G. Bovee, “Horace Greeley and Social Responsibility,”
Journalism Quarterly
63 (Summer 1986): 251-59.
24
W. S. Lilly, “The Ethics of Journalism,”
The Forum
4 (July 1889): 503-12; George Henry Payne,
History of Journalism in the United States
(New York: D. Appleton, 1925), 251-53. Also see standards in the
Minnesota Newspaper Association Confidential Bulletin
, no. 20 (May 17, 1988): 4-5, and those adopted by Will Irwin, published in
Collier’s Magazine
(1911), reprinted in Clifford F. Weigle and David G. Clark, eds.,
The American Newspaper by Will Irwin
(Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1969).
W. S. Lilly, “The Ethics of Journalism,”
The Forum
4 (July 1889): 503-12; George Henry Payne,
History of Journalism in the United States
(New York: D. Appleton, 1925), 251-53. Also see standards in the
Minnesota Newspaper Association Confidential Bulletin
, no. 20 (May 17, 1988): 4-5, and those adopted by Will Irwin, published in
Collier’s Magazine
(1911), reprinted in Clifford F. Weigle and David G. Clark, eds.,
The American Newspaper by Will Irwin
(Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1969).
26
Oswald Garrison Villard, “Press Tendencies and Dangers,” in Willard G. Bleyer,
The Profession of Journalism
(Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1918), 23.
Oswald Garrison Villard, “Press Tendencies and Dangers,” in Willard G. Bleyer,
The Profession of Journalism
(Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1918), 23.
27
Richard Grant White, “The Pest of the Period: A Chapter in the Morals and Manners of Journalism,”
The Galaxy
9 (January 1870): 102-12 (quotation on 107), responding to Edwin Godkin, “Opinion-Moulding,”
The Nation
9 (August 12, 1869): 126-27.
Richard Grant White, “The Pest of the Period: A Chapter in the Morals and Manners of Journalism,”
The Galaxy
9 (January 1870): 102-12 (quotation on 107), responding to Edwin Godkin, “Opinion-Moulding,”
The Nation
9 (August 12, 1869): 126-27.
30
John H. Summers, “What Happened to Sex Scandals? Politics and Peccadiloes, Jefferson to Kennedy,”
Journal of American History
87 (December 2000): 825-54.
John H. Summers, “What Happened to Sex Scandals? Politics and Peccadiloes, Jefferson to Kennedy,”
Journal of American History
87 (December 2000): 825-54.
32
Richard Grant White, “The Morals and Manners of Journalism,”
The Galaxy
8 (December 1869): 840-67 (quotation on 840).
Richard Grant White, “The Morals and Manners of Journalism,”
The Galaxy
8 (December 1869): 840-67 (quotation on 840).
33
Ibid., quotation on 840.
Ibid., quotation on 840.
35
Frederick L. Allen, “Newspapers and the Truth,”
Atlantic Monthly
, January 1922, 44-54; quotation on the ASNE Web site,
http://www.asne.org/index.cfm?ID=3460
.
Frederick L. Allen, “Newspapers and the Truth,”
Atlantic Monthly
, January 1922, 44-54; quotation on the ASNE Web site,
http://www.asne.org/index.cfm?ID=3460
.
36
Quoted in Bruce J. Evensen, “Journalism’s Struggle over Ethics and Professionalism During America’s Jazz Age,”
Journalism History
16 (Autumn-Winter 1989): 54-63, quotation on 55.
Quoted in Bruce J. Evensen, “Journalism’s Struggle over Ethics and Professionalism During America’s Jazz Age,”
Journalism History
16 (Autumn-Winter 1989): 54-63, quotation on 55.
37
Cited in ibid., 54.
Cited in ibid., 54.
38
Cited in Jim Kuypers,
Press Bias and Politics: How the Media Frame Controversial Issues
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 201.
Cited in Jim Kuypers,
Press Bias and Politics: How the Media Frame Controversial Issues
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 201.
41
James L. Aucoin, “The Re-emergence of American Investigative Journalism, 1960- 1975,”
Journalism History
21 (Spring 1995): 3-13.
James L. Aucoin, “The Re-emergence of American Investigative Journalism, 1960- 1975,”
Journalism History
21 (Spring 1995): 3-13.
42
Robert D. Leigh, ed.,
A Free and Responsible Press
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), 23.
Robert D. Leigh, ed.,
A Free and Responsible Press
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), 23.
43
White, “The Pest of the Period.”
White, “The Pest of the Period.”
44
As historian Robert Loewenberg observed, this resulted in a situation in which facts become interpretations (Robert Loewenberg, “‘Value-Free’ vs. ‘Value-Laden’ History: A Distinction Without a Difference,”
The Historian
38 (May 1976): 439-54. CNN reporter Christianne Amanpour echoed Loewenberg’s assessment: Objectivity meant “giving all sides a fair hearing, but not treating all sides equally. . . . So ‘objectivity’ must go hand in hand with morality” (Christiane Amanpour, “Television’s Role in Foreign Policy,”
Quill
84 [April 1996]: 16-17).
As historian Robert Loewenberg observed, this resulted in a situation in which facts become interpretations (Robert Loewenberg, “‘Value-Free’ vs. ‘Value-Laden’ History: A Distinction Without a Difference,”
The Historian
38 (May 1976): 439-54. CNN reporter Christianne Amanpour echoed Loewenberg’s assessment: Objectivity meant “giving all sides a fair hearing, but not treating all sides equally. . . . So ‘objectivity’ must go hand in hand with morality” (Christiane Amanpour, “Television’s Role in Foreign Policy,”
Quill
84 [April 1996]: 16-17).
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